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Pain and suffering are often confused; learning to differentiate them can help us live a better life Fibers that transmit pain and touch from the skin to the spinal cord. Diagram courtesy of Steve McMahon, King’s College of London, UK. Understanding suffering is crucial to live a meaningful life. For that reason, suffering a fundamental concept in many religions, particularly in Buddhism, which is built around a reflection on suffering and its overcoming. The same can be said for philosophies like Stoicism and Epicureanism. However, in today’s culture there is a simplistic interpretation of suffering that confuses it with pain, to the point where these two words are often used interchangeably. I have gained a deep comprehension of the difference between pain and suffering from three sources. First, by doing scientific research on pain neuroscience. Second, from my interest in sadomasochism. Third, from my practice of Zen Buddhism. A few facts about pain from neuroscience Pain and nociception are different things . Strictly speaking, the detection of noxious (harmful) events in the body by the central nervous system is called nociception, not pain [37]. Nociception gives rise to pain only when it becomes a subjective experience, that is, when it becomes conscious. For example, under general anesthesia there is nociception but not pain: all nociceptive pathways from the body to the brain are active, but there is no pain because the anesthesia keeps us unconscious [31]. In contrast, if a peripheral anesthetic like lidocaine is applied to the surgery site, there would be neither nociception nor pain, because lidocaine keeps the pain nerves from sending signals to the nervous system. The converse is also true: there can be pain without nociception. This happens in a disorder called “central pain” in which pain originates in a dysfunction of the brain [28], and in phantom limb pain [2,14]. My point here is that pain is part of our conscious experience. Terminations of C fibers in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord of a rat. Diagram by Hermes Solenzol. Pain is a sensation of its own , different from tact, itch and other sensations coming from the body. This was controversial for a while [10], but now we know that pain has its own pathways: sensory nerves contain non-myelinated C fibers and thin myelinated A-delta fibers [33] that are specialized in sending noxious signals from the body to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord [1]. From there, neurons send axons to different brain areas (mainly the parabrachial nucleus and the thalamus), which then relay pain signals to the cortex. Although pain is different from tact (which is carried by thick myelinated A-beta fibers), it interacts strongly with it. Usually, tactile sensations inhibit pain. This is why we rub a knee we just bumped or kiss our child’s boo-boo. However, in chronic pain disorders normal tactile sensations become painful. This is because there is a neuronal “gate” in the spinal cord that connects neurons that process tact with neurons that process pain. Normally, the gate is inhibitory, so tact inhibits pain. But in chronic pain disorders the gate becomes excitatory, so tactile sensations become painful [25]. The brain exerts a large control over the intensity of pain . Apart from this modulation by tactile sensations, the intensity of pain is also controlled by “descending pathways”: neurons in the brain send axons down the spinal cord [4,13]. The best know descending pathway is the one that links the periaqueductal grey (PAG) area in the middle of the brain with the rostral-ventral medulla (RVM) in the brain stem, and uses endorphins and opioid receptors to inhibit pain [23]. The analgesic effect of morphine and other opioids is largely mediated by this pathway. Another pain inhibition pathway uses noradrenaline as its neurotransmitter and links the nucleus coeruleus with the spinal cord [21,22,27]. The noradrenergic and the opioid pathways inhibit each other, so they are not active at the same time: the noradrenergic one is active in fight/flight situations, whereas the opioid one is linked to the freeze response [30], social defeat and relaxation. A third descending pathway increases pain instead of decreasing it [29,35], and a fourth uses dopamine as the neurotransmitter [16,17]. The modulation of pain by these systems is not trivial: the inhibitory pathways can completely abolish the pain caused by a major injury, whereas the stimulatory ones can deliver excruciating pain from a minor one. The take-home message here is that our mental state and attitude towards pain regulates the intensity of pain. Fear affects pain . One of the main triggers for these descending pathways is fear. Counter-intuitively, fear inhibits pain [5]; except in some chronic pain disorders in which fear increases pain [15,20]. There is an evolutionary reason for this: if an animal is in a fight/flight situation, pain would be a distraction that will hinder its escape or its ability to fight. This inhibition of pain by fear is mediated by the amygdala (the brain region that processes fear) and the noradrenergic descending pathways [7,24,34,36]. This explains why we feel less pain while doing sports and other activities that trigger our fight/flight response. Pain has a sensory component and an emotional component . Nociceptive signals from the spinal cord arrive at the thalamus, and there split into three pathways. One goes to the somatosensory cortex, which produces the sensation of pain: where it is located and what kind of pain it is (sharp, dull, etc.). The other two pathways go to the anterior cingulate cortex and the insula [8,11]. The anterior cingulate serves to motivate behavior, in this case to avoid the pain. The insula is responsible for the emotional aspect of pain: its unpleasantness. Drugs like ketamine and PCP (called “dissociative anesthetics”) are able to block the emotional component of pain while leaving its sensory component intact: under their influence people feel the pain, know where it is, but do not care about it. The key link between pain and suffering is in this emotional component of pain. Pain pathways connecting the spinal cord with the brain cortex. Area 24c is the anterior cingulate cortex. From Craig, A D. NatRevNeurosci 3: 655–666 (2002). Pain is an emotion Although we all have a strong intuition about what is an emotion, there is quite a bit of controversy about their exact definition . I am going to go out on a limb and provide my own, which I think is informative and in accordance with novel concepts in neuroscience: Emotions are states of the brain that provide valence and salience in order to filter sensations, drive ideation and motivate behavior. “ Valence ” refers to whether a mental content is attractive or aversive (we like it or not). “ Salience ” refers to the ability of a mental content to claim attention to itself over other mental content. According to this definition, pain is clearly an emotion because it has valence, salience and is a strong drive for ideation and behavior: if we are in pain we tend to go out of our way to stop it. Even if you disagree with my definition of emotion, there is a consensus among pain neuroscientists that pain is an emotion or has an “emotional component” [9]. Pain is not the only sensation with an emotional component, others are itch, tickle, hunger, thirst and pleasure. Itch can be as salient as pain and motivates us to scratch. Pleasure makes us want to continue doing whatever we are doing [18]. The right anterior insula is activated by a variety of sensations and emotions. From Craig, A D. NatRevNeurosci 3: 655–666 (2002). The emotional component of pain is based on its activation of the insula and the anterior cingulate cortex. The insula is a place where multiple emotions converge including pleasure, itch and disgust [38]. It also plays a role in positive emotions such as love and empathy, even orgasm! But all this refers to the posterior insula. Throughout the evolution from monkeys to humans, there was a rapid development of the anterior insula. According to neuroscientist Bud Craig [11,12], the right anterior insula has an important and very specialized function in humans: it simulates hypothetical states of the body. Thus, if you imagine what a kick in the butt would feel like, that’s your right anterior insula doing the work. This means that we can also imagine sensations that other people may be feeling: the right anterior insula mediates empathy. It may even participate in another unique property of the human mind: theory of mind, which consists of modeling what goes on in other people’s minds [19,26]. The opioid descending pathway in a rat. Diagram by Hermes Solenzol based on Paxinos, G, C Watson, The rat brain in sterotaxic coordinates. 2005, San Diego: Academic Press, Harcourt Brace & Company. Pain and suffering Pain not always has negative valence. In lay terms, this means that sometimes pain can feel good. There are many examples. You may remember when you were 6 years old and had to continually move with our tongue that dangling tooth about to fall (and the Tooth Fairy has nothing to do with it). It hurt, but it hurt so good! Billions of people in nations like Mexico, Thailand, and India love spice food. The compound that makes food spicy is capsaicin, which activates a protein called TRPV1, the one that mediates the sensation of painful burning [6,32]. Hence, spicy food actually causes pain. Another use of capsaicin is to make Maze and tear gas. All mammals except us avoid capsaicin — birds do not have TRPV1, that’s why they eat chili peppers like candy. Another instance where pain feels good is sports. People love to “feel the burn” while running or working out. Personally, I love to twist my feet and hands inside the crack in a rock face to climb it [3], or to keep doing those hard turns while skiing regardless of the pain in my quads. Zen meditation was always painful for me, but I learned to explore the ways pain affects my consciousness. Then there is sexual masochism. Millions of people around the world love to be spanked. Some even like being caned, paddled and whipped to levels of pain that would be considered torture by most people. Clearly, a lot of activities that we consider joyful or fulfilling entail a certain level of pain, which we tolerate or even appreciate for its own sake. Why are we able to enjoy pain? First of all, when we are doing an exciting activity like skiing or rock climbing, this activates the noradrenergic descending pathway that inhibits pain. Pain also mixes up with other emotions in the insula, and the resulting effect may be that pain enhances the positive emotions, including pleasure. In the case of sexual masochism, not all forms of pain are enjoyable. Masochists tend to favor a burning, stingy kind of skin pain, similar to the sensation that capsaicin from spicy food leaves in the mouth. Muscular, bone and visceral pain are much less enjoyable. Some masochists do not enjoy the pain but its psychological context as punishment or as a sign of dominance. Of course, I am not denying that pain can be a significant source of suffering. I am well aware of the suffering of people with chronic pain, of the grinding effect of having to endure excruciating levels of pain for days on end. The goal of my research was to find a cure for chronic pain. But even for chronic pain patients, beliefs about pain and coping mechanisms can have a great impact on their suffering. Since in these disorders fear increases pain, letting it take over the mind increases pain. Positive emotions and cognitive strategies can interact with pain in the insula, dampening its emotional impact. Cognition and culture can influence the intensity and valence of pain. Therefore, the ability to induce suffering depends on our education and values. Whereas our culture teaches children to fear and avoid pain, other cultures teach indifference to pain or stoicism. Pain would make us suffer less if we change the way we think about it. As we have seen, pain is an emotion that is often unpleasant but that sometimes can be joyful, so pain is not sufficient for suffering. Neither is pain necessary for suffering, because a lot of suffering occurs in the absence of pain. Therefore, pain and suffering are different things. Emotions and suffering What about emotional pain? Somehow, it has become fashionable to talk about physical and emotional pain as if they were the same thing, perhaps because both of them engage the insula. However, negative emotions do not use the pain pathways that I described above, so we should avoid confusing them with pain. But, for simplicity, I am going to use “emotional pain” to refer to emotions with negative valence, that is, emotions we rather not have. These would include fear, sadness, disgust, shame and guilt. Anger, contempt and indignation present a peculiar problem because they feel good more often than not. One could be tempted to say that suffering is having negative emotions [18], pain being one of them. But, again, this idea does not withstand close scrutiny. Most movies, plays and novels move us to fear, sadness, anger, and other negative emotions. And, still, we love them and seek them out. Another issue is that, if we were to avoid emotional pain we would not become friends with people who may suffer, and we would not seek love. We value romantic love above many other things in life, knowing full well that by seeking it we will get our heartbroken. Let’s do a thought experiment, then. Person A is passionate: he constantly falls in madly in love, but after a period of bliss he suffers a painful break-up. Then he starts over again. Person B marries a woman he is comfortable with but doesn’t feel particularly passionate about, and spends all his life with her. Which would you rather be? Perhaps the rational decision would be to be Person B, but many of us would choose to be Person A. A passionate, interesting life sounds more appealing than a dull, boring one. Clearly, when it comes to negative emotions we are in a similar situation as with pain: they often hurt, but not always. And we certainly do not live our lives trying to avoid them. Whether an emotion causes suffering does not depend on the emotion itself, but on what causes it. Sadness from a tear-jerking movie is great, sadness from losing a loved one is tragic. What causes suffering is not the emotion itself, but something deeper that has to do with what we value in life. Suffering is not an emotion, it cuts deeper than that. Suffering and happiness are states of being Living an interesting, passionate, meaningful life has little to do with physical or emotional pain. Emotions are temporary mental states, whereas these things are cognitive experiences that are related to cultural values and extend through long periods of time. Of course, I am not denying that if we had to live in constant pain (like chronic pain) or in a negative emotional state (like depression) this would make us suffer. These diseases can cause extreme suffering, to the point of inducing suicide. But there is much more to suffering than that. Here are some things that would make us suffer and have little to do with pain: a hostile social environment, psychological abuse, the suffering of others, loss of a loved one, lack of social status, lack of freedom, boredom, regrets, dread of the future, existential angst and lack of meaning. You may argue that most of these things entail emotional pain, but that emotional pain is an effect of an underlying cause, not the cause itself. These are things that we need to live a meaningful life because they are basic needs of human beings. They are not temporary emotions but long-term states of mind related to our values and our culture. These states of mind drive our behavior, affect our relationships, evoke our emotions and depend on our knowledge. That is why I think that suffering should be considered a state of being, something that pertains to the entirety of the human mind and not to particular emotions or sensations. The same can be said of the opposite of suffering: happiness — happiness is a state of being and not just an emotion. Realizing this can serve to guide us to live lives with less suffering and more happiness. We do not achieve happiness by avoiding pain, either physical or emotional, but by leading a meaningful existence. How we define that is up to us, but educating ourselves and getting to know ourselves seem to be the path to follow. In that, Buddhism, Epicureanism and Stoicism are fundamentally right. References Basbaum, A I, D M Bautista, G Scherrer, D Julius. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell 139: 267–284 (2009) Bloomquist, T. 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The nasty details of emotional abuse Thunderstorm over an islet in the Caribbean. Photo by the author. Monsters in Love I am reading Monsters In Love  (Menakem, 2023) a book recommended to my wife by her therapist. My wife bought the ebook on Amazon and somehow it ended up in my kindle. Monsters In Love , by Resmaa Menakem, is one more book about how to heal relationships in trouble. However, it takes an original approach to this, disagreeing with much of the conventional advice on couples therapy. The main thesis of the book is that relationships are en endless source of trouble—hence the title—but that this needs to be accepted as a fact and used as an opportunity for personal growth. I started reading the book and was immediately hooked. I like unconventional ideas, and the main thesis of the book is consistent with my personal experience in 34 years of marriage and several polyamorous relationships. Another thing that I like is that the author refrains from blaming any particular gender, a breath of fresh air in the midst of a gender war in which either men are blamed for every evil under the sun, or women are pushed into their traditional submissive roles. In fact, many of the example as same-sex couples, both male and female. The author also emphasizes that most abuse in relationships is mutual, which agrees with the evidence I have seen. It’s not that I agree with the author on everything. For one thing, he disapproves of ethical non-monogamy (ENM), seeing as a way to bail out of the noble, altruistic struggle that for him should be at the core of any relationship. He probably has no experience with ENM or polyamory, either personally or as a couples therapist. Regardless, his book is full of great ideas that can be applied to relationships between any number of partners. I am using it to improve my relationship with both my wife and my newly found lover. Clean pain and dirty pain I will not discuss the entire book here, just chapter 15, Monsters Operate on Vibes , which I found particularly illuminating. Another central idea of the book is that relationship problems generate pain, but we have a choice between clean pain  and dirty pain . Clean pain  happens when we choose to confront the basic problems of the relationship and stay with them, using them to understand each other and achieve personal growth. I am halfway through the book and, so far, I haven’t found a clear explanation of how to do this. However, it fits with my life philosophy of the Way of the Warrior , which consists in using any problem in life to understand and improve myself; or, in the lingo of the Way of the Warrior, to gather personal power . Dirty pain  is explained more clearly. It’s what happens when we push our partners to change according to our wishes, using all kinds of dirty tricks to coerce, bully or blackmail them. This entails acts of subtle cruelty in the relationship, some of which are described in chapter 15. Sliming The first of these acts of sliming: “We send our partner a vibe that conveys disrespect, devaluation, or dismissal, but without using nasty words or negative tone. […] Then we feign ignorance, pretend that we did nothing, and accuse our partner of overreacting. […] Sliming messages are often communicated with an ambiguous gesture or look or tone.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. This agrees with a common idea in relationship therapy: that the worst sign of trouble in a relationship is mutual contempt. What is new here is that this contempt is often expressed in subtle ways, so subtle that they would be missed by people outside the relationship. Unlike the commonplace assertion that couples have trouble because of problems in communication, Resmaa states that most couples communicate perfectly well. The problem is that they don’t like what is being communicated. They have many years of close interaction in which they have perfected understanding each other’s words, voice tone and body language, to the point that non-verbal messages become more important than what it’s actually said. These non-verbal cues are the ones used for sliming. “Sliming is a classic form of commonplace cruelty in committed relationships. No direct physical harm gets inflicted, but psychological and emotional harm do.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. Overpowering “Overpowering involves being so assertive or repetitive or over-communicative with your partner that they become uncomfortable. This commonly includes bullying, nagging, overexplaining, lecturing, or simply talking too loudly or slowly, as if your partner has a hearing disorder.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. One version of this is what I call the wall of words : speaking continuously for a long time, not to convey some complex idea, but to overwhelm your partner and not let them speak. Once, an administrator at my work, an ex-cop, used the wall of words on me, talking over me every time I tried to say something. When he started throwing in threats, I just walked out of his office, never to come back. In more benign cases, people use the wall of words because they become anxious and talking non-stop is a way to stop what they fear their partners are about to say. In other cases, overpowering is a way to express contempt or to establish dominance over your partner. It reinforces a nasty dynamic in a conversation in which each person is struggling to say their piece instead of listening to the other person. The conversation becomes a power struggle and it’s likely to escalate into a nasty fight. Underpowering “Underpowering involves giving your partner only part of what you know they want or need, especially in conversations.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. What they may want from you is a sign that you care about them, that you are willing to listen to them. The most common forms of underpowering are changing the subject to something you care about, doing something else while your partner is trying to talk to you, giving non-verbal signals that you don’t care about what they are saying, or ending the conversation prematurely or, even worse, right after you say your piece, without giving them an opportunity to respond. “People often respond to overpowered messages with underpowered ones, and vice versa.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. Optimistic gaslighting “Optimistic gaslighting is a faux sense of positivity that one partner performs for the other in order to avoid a very real conflict or challenge.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. The way this usually goes is your partner comes to you with a fear or a concern, not about you, but about something that happened to them and you play it down, minimizing it. Often, the response is patronizing, implying that you are getting overly upset about something that is not really all that important—hence the term gaslighting: this is something that is just in your mind, it’s not real. Optimistic gaslighting may be done as a way to protect us from the anxiety of what happened to our partner. We don’t want to take on their fear. This is the opposite to empathy and compassion—we refuse to suffer with our partner. They are left with the feeling that we don’t care. Another reason for this is to avoid having to take action to help our partner with their problem, particularly if we are part of that problem. It’s a form of abandonment. Or maybe we chose to be in denial. Spirit murder This is one the worse forms of emotional cruelty. “Sprit murder, the most toxic of those moves, is a vibratory challenge to someone’s value or existence, often expressed (or accompanied) by words of contempt. The energetic message of spirit murder is: You’re worthless or subhuman. You don’t belong. You don’t deserve to belong.” Resmaa Menakem, Monsters In Love. As a scientist, I don’t like words like “vibratory” or “energetic” because they sound like a New Age abuse of physics. However, the author explains in the book that he refers to the mapping of emotions in the body, which is a sound theory espoused by prestigious neuroscientists like Antonio Damasio (Damasio, 1999). If sliming conveys contempt in an indirect way, sprit murder does so directly. It goes straight for our self-esteem, which is the form of emotional abuse most likely to cause emotional damage. Spirit murder feels like a punch in the gut. We may think that we can simply disregard spirit murder… “He’s just trying to hurt me.” But it’s not that simple. Shame is an emotion that evolved in humans so we can be controlled by others and compelled to cooperate with our tribe (Martens et al., 2012). Shame acts as a warning of changes in our social status, which in hunter-gatherers tribes was essential for our survival and reproduction. The  control that shame has on us happens unconsciously and involuntarily. Therefore, when somebody shames us, there is little we can do to keep this from affecting our self-esteem, particularly if it is done repeatedly by someone emotionally close to us. Spirit murder is aptly named because it is psychologically toxic. The challenge of loving ethically Living ethically a romantic relationship is one of the hardest challenges that we face in life. It’s just too easy to fall into the temptation to emotionally manipulate our partner. Our fears, possessiveness and instinct of self-preservation continually prod us to bully, blackmail and berate the person we love the most. We need to constantly question our motives and our feelings, opting to be our better selves, to act with the utmost integrity. References Damasio AR (1999) The feeling of what happens : body and emotion in the making of consciousness, 1st Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace. Martens JP, Tracy JL, Shariff AF (2012) Status signals: adaptive benefits of displaying and observing the nonverbal expressions of pride and shame. Cognition & emotion 26:390–406. Menakem R (2023) Monsters In Love - Why Your Partner Sometimes Drives You Crazy—and What You Can Do About It. Las Vegas, Nevada: Central Recovery Press. Copyright 2026 Hermes Solenzol

Science is the best form of knowledge Columbine wildflower in the California Sierra. Photo by the author. What is scientism? Scientism is the idea that believing that science is a superior form of knowledge is wrong because it amounts to an unwarranted worshipping of science. It is an accusation often leveled against scientists, humanists and skeptics by New Age gurus, old-fashion religious conservatives and quite a few misguided philosophers. One of such philosophers is Massimo Pigliucci, who writes in Medium with the penname of Figs in Winter. This is surprising, since Pigliucci used to be a scientist before he became a philosopher who centers his work around the ancient discipline of Stoicism. He also writes often against different forms of pseudoscience and magical beliefs. Massimo Pigliucci has written a book about scientism (which I have not read) and the following article in Medium: https://figsinwinter.medium.com/against-scientism-7998052ac206 This article is a response to Pigliucci’s article. It grew out of a series of comments I wrote in response. Science is not the only form of knowledge In turn, Pigliucci’s article is a response to the article Why not scientism? , by Moti Mizrahiis, Associate Professor of philosophy at the Florida Institute of Technology, published in Aeon magazine. He [Mizrahiis] proceeds by defining scientism in one of two ways: (i) The thesis that scientific knowledge is the only form of knowledge we have; (ii) The thesis that scientific knowledge is the best form of knowledge we have. The first one is demonstrably false, the second one nonsensical. I agree with Pigliucci in that science is not the only form of knowledge. Apart from Philosophy, there are many disciplines in the Humanities that I do not consider science because they do not use the scientific methods. This would include Economics, Sociology, History and Literature. Other disciplines, like Psychology or Anthropology, are semi-scientific because some of their practitioners use the scientific method while others do not. Psychoanalysis is not scientific. Anthropologists accepted the books of Carlos Castaneda as fact-based  for a long time, but rejected the rigorous work  of Napoleon Chagnon  on the Yanomami for ideological reasons. In any case, using the scientific method is not necessary to arrive at true knowledge. In many cases, it is not even possible to use the scientific method. Outside academic disciplines, there are many ways to gain knowledge. Most of the things we learn in life we learn from experience, including to walk and talk, how to do sports, how to communicate with people, who to trust, who to love and how to behave in public. As a lifelong follower of a spiritual path, I believe that introspection, mindfulness, subjective experience and altered states of consciousness are essential resources to integrate our minds and live a good life. I think that few people would defend the idea that science is the only form of knowledge and, least of all, scientists. This is a bit of a strawman. Therefore, I will center in defending the position that science is the best form of knowledge. That's why I am in favor of scientism. Science is the best form of knowledge I summarize my position as follows: Whenever a non-scientific discipline produces an idea that conflicts with science, science should take priority. This is similar to the second definition of scientism provided by Mizrahiis: “the thesis that scientific knowledge is the best form of knowledge we have.” However, I agree with Massimo Pigliucci that there are many fields that are not the competence of science. At least, not yet. Science is ever expanding. Things that once were thought not to fall under the scientific purview, like subjective experiences, can now be investigated with methods like brain imaging (fMRI and PET), which can examine brain activity that correlates with certain mental experiences, and transcranial magnetic stimulation  (TMS), which can externally induce mental experiences. Another case is History, which is increasingly using the scientific method and applying scientific ideas. For example, in his the masterpiece Guns, Germs and Steel , physiologist Jared Diamond used concepts from biology to explain why Europeans were able to conquer the rest of the world, and not the other way around, putting to rest white supremacist theories. Obviously, science cannot assert supremacy in fields that do not fall under the purview of the scientific methods, like Philosophy or Economics. Still, science has forged a vast worldview by now. If any discipline asserts an idea that contradicts this worldview, it should supply an amount of evidence that matches the scientific evidence that has led to this worldview. Good luck with that! Alternatively, it should provide a means to reconcile this idea with the scientific worldview. This is, in fact, something that Massimo Pigliucci does regularly when challenging pseudoscience. He seems to believe in the priority of science sometimes — when fighting magical thinking — but not others — when defending his pet philosophical ideas. Therefore, I support scientism because I believe that science is the best form of knowledge we have. It is not the only valid form of knowledge, but it should take primacy over any other in the fields of its competence. The primacy of the scientific method The scientific method is, by far, the best way of acquiring knowledge that we have. Other than direct experience (which can also be deceiving), methods of knowledge are either beliefs (religious faith and ideologies) or the type of fact-independent reasoning practiced by philosophers. Belief is irrational. Philosophical reasoning (“logic”) has failed to produce a self-consistent set of ideas in thousands of years. Philosophers, unlike scientists, can hardly agree on anything. The failure of philosophy to produce any progress is why philosophers keep referring to people who lived 2,000 years ago. Imagine if science was done by endlessly analyzing the writings of Galileo, Newton or Darwin! But what is the scientific method, anyway? Epistemologists have tried to answer this question for hundreds of years, and failed. At this point, there is not one scientific method, but several. Each science has its own. The scientific method is also a moving target, it keeps on changing. In fact, developing the scientific method is part of the scientific discovery process. As we refine scientific theories, we change the methods we use to adapt to the new knowledge. Induction versus deduction And yet, the essential part of the scientific method is induction. It is the idea that, by making observations, we can come up with ideas explaining these observations and predict future observations. Induction was initially criticized by philosophers, notably David Hume, for being irrational. Although Hume had a big part in conceiving the scientific method, he noted that induction was logically circular: it could only be justified using induction. Indeed, induction happens to work because the world has an uncanny property: it follows certain laws. By observing the world in numerous ways, science was able to discover these laws. While science embraced induction, philosophy stuck to deduction, or logic. It pursued the truth by using reasoning alone. In a relatively short time, two to three hundred years, science made amazing progress. Meanwhile, philosophers got stuck in endless disputes and rival theories. Logic seems to work in different ways for different thinkers. Every new philosophical idea seems crazier than the previous one. That’s how we got to Postmodernism and Identity Politics. If you reject the scientific  method as the gold standard to acquire knowledge, you are doomed to live in a world of opinions. You’ll have no basis to reject ideas like the chakras, karma or chi. Without having a way to check ideas against reality, anything goes. Some philosophers don’t even believe that reality exists. Mathematics is a science One of the most annoying things that philosophers say when attacking science is that Mathematics is not a science. For example, Pigliucci says: “Mathematicians produce knowledge, and mathematics is not a science, because its results are independent of any empirical finding concerning the outside world. The Pythagorean theorem, for instance, is true regardless of any actual triangle out there.” This is not true. Take Statistics, for example, an ever-growing part of Mathematics. Throughout my scientific career, I have seen statistical methods change and improve. Part of this was driven by the computer revolution. Using the primitive computers of the early 80s, I was one of the first scientists to use non-linear regression and iterative fitting algorithms to analyze biochemical data. Computer programs allowed me to enter different equations and determine which one fitted my experimental data the best. This is checking mathematics — the equation — against empirical findings in the world. Similarly, different types of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were developed based on their success in analyzing empirical data ranging from molecular measures, to animal behavior, to the outcome of different drug treatments in patients. But this is not limited to Statistics. Calculus is a branch of Mathematics without which Quantum Mechanics and the theories of Relativity — or anything in modern Physics, for that matter — would not have been possible. Calculus was co-discovered by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, two notable scientists. Newton was after a way to formalize the laws of motion and had to use mathematics to do that. Again, if his equations could not predict the outcome of physical experiments, they would have had to be rejected. Mathematics are not just a science. They are central to science. They are the language of science. They are at the core of the modern scientific method. Denying the centrality of math in science is to profoundly misunderstand science. The fact that Pigliucci cites the Pythagoras Theorem as an example suggests an explanation for why philosophers think that Mathematics are not science. Pythagoras was an Idealist. He thought that Mathematics offered a window to an unseen world of ideas at the foundation of reality. Perhaps philosophers — who rarely use math for anything other than figuring the tip at a restaurant — still view Mathematics as pure thinking, utterly disconnected from scientific experimentation. The daily experience of scientists contradicts that. The primacy of the scientific worldview There is much more to science than the scientific method. By systematically applying the scientific method, science has produced a body of knowledge that is internally consistent and vast, encompassing all the physical world and much of what we experience as humans. Do I need to tell you what this worldview is about? Physics has shown how stars produce their energy, how planets like Earth are formed, what matter is made of, and has given us a description of the Universe and its history. Chemistry has listed all known substances, explained their properties and created and bunch of new chemicals. Biology has provided all-encompassing theories (evolution, biochemistry and molecular biology) that explain what life is, how living beings work and how they are interconnected in a common history. Neuroscience is well on its way to explaining how the brain produces the mind, mental diseases and how different brain activities produced different mental states. Science is using its explanatory power to reach within Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology and History to (hopefully) transform them from ideology-driven disciplines to evidence-founded sciences. There is no worldview that can rival that produced by science. The sociopolitical importance of science People and countries reject science at their own peril. The scientific worldview has dethroned religion as the basic system of ideas around which to construct society. While in theocracies religion provides the ethical foundation on which to construct laws, science provides a basic foundation of knowledge about which everybody can agree. This made it possible to have secular societies in which many religions and no religion can coexist, because no religion has to claim its primacy as the ethical foundation of society. Yes, there will be always people who reject science, but they will pay a heavy price for doing so by denying themselves the medicines and vaccines they need to stay healthy, and the culture that they need to succeed in society. This is even more true when it comes to nations. Science is absolutely required for building a sound industrial base, to develop life-saving vaccines and medicines (as we just came to learn with the Covid pandemic), to teach a cadre of engineers and medical doctors, and to invent weapons that give secular nations a military edge. Even authoritarian countries like China and theocracies like Iran have to accept science if they don’t want to fall behind in the global competition. In contrast, countries that ignore Western philosophy would hardly notice it. They may even save money and protect their own culture. Perhaps herein lies the problem. Philosophers seem to have an inferiority complex and a bit of envy when they compare science with the dismal progress of their own disciplines. That’s why they feel the need to bring science down a notch or two.

The workings of Manuscript Analysis, by ProWritingAid Manuscript Analysis (MA) is a new feature of the writing app ProWritingAid in which AI is used to create an editorial critique of your novel similar to one done by a human editor. Of course, there is a disclaimer at the top saying that this cannot substitute a human editor. However, the MA critique costs $50, $35 with an annual subscription to ProWritingAid. You would have to pay a human editor hundreds or even thousands of dollars for something similar. For writers like me, with a low budget and little hope of recouping any investment in the novel, this is the only viable alternative. My novel Cecilia Unleashed is the second book of the trilogy The Liberation of Cecilia . I wrote in Spanish in 2010 and translated it to English in 2025. I ran MA on the Spanish version. With the input of MA, I wrote another edition, which is the one I then translated to English. Here I am posting the critique that I got from MA for this novel, in the hope that it would help other writers decide if they want to use MA. It is also an interesting look at what the AI output looks like and its possible flaws. I was surprised at how strong was my impression that somebody had read and understood my novel, even though it took MA about 10 minutes to generate the critique of a novel of 165,000 words. But my biggest surprise was that I fed MA the novel in Spanish. It had no trouble reading it and giving me an output in English. In some of my other novels, it even commented on the different Spanish dialects of my characters! What follows is the output of MA. It’s a bit long because it’s so comprehensive. My comments are in italics, explaining how I used the advice. Some spoilers are unavoidable. Story Overview Genre: Romance (Erotic Romance Thriller) Cecilia, heartbroken by Julio's departure for military service, explores her sexuality through sadomasochistic encounters and prostitution at Angelique. Her brother Luis, driven by a twisted sense of honor, violently opposes her choices, leading to a dangerous confrontation and Cecilia's expulsion from her family home. Seeking refuge with friends and exploring unconventional relationships, Cecilia navigates a world of love, betrayal, and self-discovery. This is a great summary that I can use as a blurb to advertise my novel. However, I modified it substantially, making it a bit longer. Plot Outline 1.     Cecilia's heartbreak and exploration of sadomasochism after Julio leaves for military service. 2.     Cecilia's increasing involvement with Johnny and Angelique, a BDSM club and brothel. 3.     Luis's discovery of Cecilia's activities and violent confrontation, leading to her expulsion from home. 4.     Cecilia seeks refuge with friends Lorenzo and Malena, and continues her work at Angelique. 5.     Rising tensions with Luis and his associates culminate in a violent attack and Cecilia's injury.  Narrative Elements Setting The story primarily takes place in Madrid, Spain, during the late 1970s, a period of political and social transition following Franco's dictatorship. The settings include Cecilia's family home, the university where she studies, Angelique (a BDSM club and brothel), and the homes of her friends. The atmosphere reflects the changing times, with a mix of traditional values and emerging freedoms. Themes & Motifs 1.     Sexual liberation and repression:  Cecilia's exploration of sadomasochism and prostitution juxtaposes with the societal and familial pressures she faces, highlighting the conflict between personal freedom and restrictive norms. 2.     Betrayal and loyalty:  The shifting dynamics between Cecilia, Julio, and Laura explore themes of betrayal and the complexities of love and friendship, particularly within the context of changing sexual relationships. 3.     Violence and control:  Luis's violent actions towards Cecilia, driven by a distorted sense of honor, underscore the theme of male control and violence against women as a means of enforcing traditional values. Competitive Landscape Potential Readers The potential readers for this story would likely be adults aged 18 and older, interested in exploring themes of sexual liberation, complex relationships, and the challenges of self-discovery. The target demographic would skew towards women and those with a progressive mindset, comfortable with explicit content. Given the historical and cultural context, readers with an interest in Spanish culture and history, particularly the post-Franco era, might also be drawn to the story. Educational background and income level are less critical, though a certain level of intellectual curiosity is assumed, given the protagonist's academic pursuits and exploration of philosophical concepts. Similar Books 1.     Belle de Jour  by Joseph Kessel: Both stories feature female protagonists who explore their sexuality through prostitution, grappling with societal expectations and personal desires. 2.     Fear of Flying  by Erica Jong: Similar to Cecilia's journey, Isadora Wing in  Fear of Flying  embarks on a quest for sexual liberation and self-discovery, challenging conventional norms and embracing her desires. 3.     The Story of O  by Pauline Réage: Both stories delve into the world of BDSM, exploring themes of submission, dominance, and the complexities of sexual relationships. I had read all three of these novels. Story of O is cited often in my novel; some of its passages even inspired my characters in some of the passages of my novel. However, the similarities with Belle de Jour and Fear of Flying are very small. My novel was more inspired by the books of Almudena Grandes and by the ‘Cuentame’ Spanish television series. Characters This is very interesting, although it would have been more helpful if MA explained what the different labels mean. I guess ‘dynamic’ means that the character changes during the story, while ‘static’ means that a character is not affected very much by the plot. ‘Round’ probably means a complex character that doesn’t change. You want all your main characters to be dynamic; I managed that with the three main characters, Cecilia, Julio and Laura, with a secondary charter, Malena, and a tertiary character, Marcos. The other labels - explorer, lover, ruler, outlaw, sage, caregiver, innocent and everyman - are self-explanatory. However, I feel that my main characters are much more complex than these labels indicate. Similar Characters 1.     Cecilia:  Similar to Anaïs Nin's character in  Delta of Venus , Cecilia embraces sexual exploration and pushes boundaries, defying societal expectations. 2.     Julio:  Julio's struggle with his sadistic tendencies and desire for a conventional relationship mirrors the internal conflict of Christian Grey in  Fifty Shades of Grey . 3.     Laura:  Laura's complex relationship with Cecilia, marked by both friendship and betrayal, resembles the dynamics between Catherine and Heathcliff in  Wuthering Heights . I didn’t like these comparisons at all. In fact, I was horrified that the sensate Julio is compared with the neurotic Christian Gray. This part was not helpful. The Table of Contents is useful because it shows how each chapter works in the plot. It also indicates which character is the point-of-view (POV). My novel has two POVs: Cecilia and Julio. Narrative Themes MA scores each item on a four-point scale: ‘Working well’ is a successful feature. ‘Minor concern’ I took to mean some to pay attention to, but that can be left as it is. ‘Concern’ is a flaw that needs to be changed. ‘Major concern’ I took to mean something that can decrease the overall quality of the novel. I found this scale not to be accurate. MA disregarded some major concerns, while some minor ones prompted me to introduce changes. Compelling Exploration of Female Sexuality - Working well The story delves into the complexities of female sexuality through Cecilia's exploration of sadomasochism and prostitution, offering a nuanced and thought-provoking portrayal of her desires, motivations, and struggles. The narrative avoids simplistic judgments and presents a multifaceted perspective on female sexual agency. Where in your text This exploration is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, and 27. Effective Use of Music - Working well The narrative effectively uses music, particularly the songs of Leonard Cohen and Bob Marley, to reinforce the story's themes and create an emotional resonance. The selected songs reflect the characters' inner states and the social and political context of the story. Where in your text This is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in Chapters 2, 3, 6, 8, and 18. The music was not added as an afterthought. The different songs became a source of inspiration for the plot, particularly for the emotions I wanted to show in each passage. I gradually constructed a playlist, which I played for inspiration. Effective Use of Symbolism - Working well The story uses symbolism effectively, such as the vara representing Cecilia's relationship with Julio and her exploration of sadomasochism, and the Anima Sola image reflecting her internal struggles and her search for liberation. These symbols add layers of meaning and enrich the narrative's impact. Where in your text The vara's symbolism is evident in Chapters 1, 3, and 19, while the Anima Sola image is discussed in Chapter 8. MA did not translate the Spanish word ‘vara’, which is a cane used in BDSM to hit. Pseudo-Intellectualism in Discussions - Minor concern The philosophical and political discussions between characters sometimes feel superficial and contrived, using complex terminology without genuine depth or insight. These discussions can feel like info-dumps rather than authentic conversations. Where in your text This issue is most noticeable in Chapter 17, during the dinner conversation about communism and socialism, and in some of Cecilia's conversations with Yi Shen about Buddhism and Eastern philosophy. Suggested improvements Ground the philosophical and political discussions in the characters' personal experiences and motivations. Make the conversations more organic and relatable, avoiding overly academic or abstract language. Show the characters grappling with these ideas in a way that feels authentic and relevant to their lives. This is a constant criticism of MA in all my novels. The AI just doesn’t like any kind of intellectual discussion inserted into the plot. However, I think that MA is very poor at judging the intellectual quality of any discussion. My inspiration was the novels of Aldous Huxley, in which intellectual discussions are so extensive that these books seem like a cross between fiction and non-fiction. My intellectual discussions are much shorter than that. However, I did change Chapter 17, taking out the political arguments and including accounts of Yi Shen’s lived experiences instead. Underdeveloped Theme of Sexual Liberation - Minor concern While Cecilia's exploration of sexuality is a central theme, the narrative doesn't fully explore the nuances and complexities of sexual liberation in the context of post-Franco Spain. The theme feels somewhat underdeveloped and lacks deeper social and political context. Where in your text This issue is noticeable throughout the manuscript, as Cecilia's sexual experiences are primarily portrayed through personal encounters rather than being connected to the broader social and political landscape. Suggested improvements Develop the theme of sexual liberation more deeply by connecting Cecilia's experiences to the changing social and political climate of post-Franco Spain. Show how her exploration of sexuality challenges traditional norms and reflects the broader societal shifts towards greater freedom and openness. The problem with this and other criticism is that MA cannot take into account the fact that this book is part of a trilogy. What it demands here is accomplished when all the three books are taken into account. Besides, the experiences of Cecilia, Julio and Laura are quite unique because BDSM was marginal in Spain during its transition to democracy. Oversimplification of Political Context - Minor concern The political context of post-Franco Spain, particularly the tensions between different political factions and the threat of a coup, is oversimplified and lacks nuanced exploration. The narrative reduces complex political issues to simplistic explanations and characterizations. Where in your text This issue is noticeable in Chapters 2, 17, and 25, where political discussions and events are portrayed in a somewhat simplistic and polarized manner. Suggested improvements Develop the political context more deeply, showing the complexities of the political landscape and the nuances of different ideological viewpoints. Explore the historical events and social factors that have shaped the political climate, providing a more nuanced and informative portrayal of the era. I think MA misses the point here. This is also in conflict with its previous criticism of political discussions. It would be impossible to talk more about the politics of the time without the characters engaging in lengthy arguments. In any case, each of the major events in the history of the Spanish transition to democracy is carefully dated and represented in the novel. The AI just doesn’t seem to know about them. I lived them.  Plot & Structure Inconsistent Timeline of Julio's Mili - Concern The timeline of Julio's military service is unclear and inconsistent. The duration of his training, time spent at different locations, and the timing of his leave periods are contradictory and confusing. Where in your text This issue is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in chapters where Julio's military experiences are discussed (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5), and becomes more noticeable during his interactions with Cecilia and Laura in later chapters. Suggested improvements Create a clear timeline for Julio's military service, outlining the key events, locations, and durations. Ensure that references to his time in the military are consistent and accurate throughout the manuscript. Here is another major flaw of MA: it seems to have problems with timelines and measures of any kind. In fact, each event of Julio’s military service is carefully narrated, because they are based on my own military service in the Spanish army in 1980. Disregarded. Unclear Causality of Parental Abuse - Concern The reasons for Cecilia's father's sudden shift from physical abuse to a more conciliatory approach are unclear and unearned. His change in behavior lacks a clear catalyst or explanation, making it feel inconsistent with his established character. Where in your text This issue is evident in Chapter 27, during Cecilia's phone conversation with her father, where he expresses remorse and offers help without a clear motivation. Suggested improvements Provide a more plausible explanation for Cecilia's father's change in behavior. This could involve revealing hidden motivations, external influences, or a gradual change of heart based on specific events. Again, this is because MA doesn’t know about the previous novel in the trilogy. MA doesn’t seem to understand the subtleties of the phone conversation between Cecilia and her father in Chapter 27, which is hugely important. While Luis threatened Cecilia with physical violence, her father announced something far more dangerous. Disregarded, although I examined this phone conversation carefully and changed it to anticipate events in my fifth novel. Uneven Pacing of Cecilia's Transformation - Concern The pacing of Cecilia's transformation from a devout Catholic to a sexually liberated prostitute feels rushed and unearned. The narrative skips over important emotional and psychological stages, making her drastic change in lifestyle less believable. Where in your text This issue is evident in Chapters 7 and 8, where Cecilia makes the decision to work at Angelique, and her subsequent embrace of prostitution feels abrupt and lacking in internal conflict. Suggested improvements Develop Cecilia's transformation more gradually, showing her internal struggles, doubts, and the process of shedding her religious beliefs and embracing a new identity. Add scenes that explore her emotional and psychological journey, making her transformation more relatable and believable. Again, the main transformation of Cecilia happens in the first book of the series. Disregarded. Implausible Impunity of Luis' Crimes - Concern Luis's criminal actions, including kidnapping, assault, and attempted mutilation, lack realistic consequences. His impunity, despite Cecilia's police report and don Fernando's intervention, stretches believability and undermines the story's tension. Where in your text This issue is evident in Chapters 23, 24, and 25, where Luis continues to threaten and pursue Cecilia without facing any legal repercussions. Suggested improvements Introduce realistic consequences for Luis's actions. Show the legal system or other characters actively intervening to stop his criminal behavior. This could involve investigations, arrests, or other forms of repercussions that raise the stakes and add a sense of danger. MA doesn’t know the level of impunity with which young fascists operated in Spain at that time. This was intentionally directed from the government as a way to discourage protests against the regime. This criticism seems based on the legal situation in the USA in the 21 st  century. Still, in my fourth novel there is a trial of Luis for what he did to Cecilia. Underutilized Yi Shen's Backstory - Concern Yi Shen's compelling backstory, revealed in Chapter 16, feels underutilized and disconnected from the main narrative. The potential of his experiences in Vietnam and his philosophical insights is not fully explored or integrated into the story's themes. Where in your text The backstory is revealed in Chapter 16, during Yi Shen's conversation with Cecilia. Suggested improvements Integrate Yi Shen's backstory more effectively into the main narrative, showing how his experiences have shaped his philosophy and how he applies his wisdom to help Cecilia and other characters. Explore the parallels between his trauma and Malena's, creating deeper connections between their characters and the story's themes. This was one of the most helpful suggestions of MA. It led to a re-write of Chapter 17 to include Yin Shen’s story in his interaction with Cecilia, Julio and Malena. Weak Climax of Street Confrontation - Concern The climax of the street confrontation with Luis feels rushed and anticlimactic. The events leading up to the attack and its resolution lack tension and don't fully utilize the built-up animosity between Cecilia and Luis. Where in your text The climax occurs in Chapter 27, during the street confrontation in Vallecas. Suggested improvements Rewrite the climax to increase the tension and emotional impact. Develop the events leading up to the attack more gradually, building suspense and highlighting the danger Cecilia faces. Show the physical and emotional consequences of the confrontation in more detail, making it a more powerful and memorable moment. Another extremely useful suggestion. The novel ends in a dramatic scene, but it is true that there was no built-up to it. It just springs upon the reader by surprise. I re-wrote Chapter 27 and some of the previous chapters to build more tension and intensify the drama. Excessive Internal Monologue of Cecilia - Concern Cecilia's frequent and lengthy internal monologues often interrupt the flow of the narrative and slow down the pacing. These extended introspective passages sometimes rehash information or reiterate her emotional state without adding significant insight. Where in your text This issue is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in chapters where Cecilia is grappling with her feelings about Julio, Laura, and her own choices, such as Chapters 1, 6, 14, 18, 20, 22, 25, and 27. Suggested improvements Condense or eliminate some of Cecilia's internal monologues, particularly those that repeat information or don't contribute to plot development or character growth. Use dialogue, actions, or interactions with other characters to reveal her inner thoughts and feelings more organically. This was one of my worries about the novel. It is true that there are lengthy sequences of internal monologue in italics, which are disliked by some writers. However, it was important for me to make the reader completely identify with Cecilia. That’s why I want to place the reader inside Cecilia’s head. I checked, though, and found that it is not true that the internal dialogues do not convey important information. They are essential to show Cecilia’s emotions and motivations. Implausible Impunity of Cecilia - Minor concern Cecilia faces no legal repercussions for engaging in prostitution, despite its illegality in Spain at the time. This lack of consequences undermines the realism of the setting and diminishes the potential tension. Where in your text This issue is pervasive throughout the latter half of the manuscript, particularly in chapters where Cecilia works at Angelique and discusses her profession with other characters. Suggested improvements Acknowledge the legal risks associated with prostitution in 1970s Spain. Show Cecilia taking precautions to avoid arrest or facing the potential consequences of her actions. This could involve interactions with corrupt officials, close calls with the law, or discussions about the legal risks with other prostitutes. Cecilia is being reckless; that’s who she is. However, the legal situation in Spain at the time was irregular, with a lot of permissiveness for the upper class being intertwined with repression of the lower classes. That’s why prostitution in the business neighborhoods in Madrid was tolerated. However, Cecilia faces such legal consequences in later novels. Implausible Travel to Vigo - Minor concern Cecilia and Julio's trip to Vigo and their subsequent travels around the area seem rushed and logistically implausible given the time constraints and their limited resources. They cover unrealistic distances in short periods, undermining the realism of the setting. Where in your text This issue is evident in Chapter 18, where Cecilia and Julio travel from Santiago to Vigo, then to Cangas, Barra beach, and Donón within a single day, while needing to be back for Cecilia's return train and Julio's return to the barracks. Suggested improvements Adjust the timeline or logistics of their trip to make it more believable. Consider adding more details about transportation, travel time, and the practicalities of their movements, ensuring that their itinerary aligns with the realistic possibilities within the given timeframe. Another example of how the AI used for MA has trouble with timelines. I have done this trip myself, so I know exactly how much time everything takes. However, I took this prompt to make some changes in Chapter 18 based on my more recent experiences in these places. Repetitive Cecilia's Inner Conflicts - Minor concern Cecilia's internal conflicts, particularly her struggles with jealousy and her desire for Julio, are repeatedly rehashed throughout the manuscript without significant development or resolution. These repetitive patterns can feel monotonous and hinder character growth. Where in your text This issue is noticeable in Cecilia's internal monologues and dialogues with Laura and Julio, where she frequently expresses her jealousy and her longing for Julio, such as in Chapters 1, 3, 5, 12, 18, 22, and 25. Suggested improvements Vary Cecilia's internal conflicts and show her emotional development. Introduce new challenges or perspectives that force her to confront her jealousy and her attachment to Julio in different ways. Show her learning and growing from these experiences, making her internal journey more dynamic and engaging. Cecilia is stuck emotionally, and so is Julio. They both come out of their paralysis in the next novel of the trilogy. In this one, this emotional paralysis is an important part of the plot that prevents a quicker resolution of one of the main conflicts. Lack of Tension in Cecilia's Escape - Minor concern Cecilia's escape from Luis's apartment lacks tension and suspense. The narrative skips over crucial details of her escape, making it feel too easy and unearned. The potential danger of the situation is not fully realized. Where in your text The escape occurs in Chapter 21. Suggested improvements Rewrite Cecilia's escape to heighten the tension and suspense. Provide more detail about her actions, her thought process, and the obstacles she overcomes. Show the physical and emotional challenges she faces, making her escape more thrilling and believable. This is simply not true. Cecilia’s escape is full of tension, danger and close-calls. I revised Chapter 21 and found no problems. Implausible Coincidence of Remi's Connection - Minor concern The coincidence of Remi, Cecilia's first client, having known her mother as a prostitute feels contrived and implausible. This coincidence stretches believability and undermines the realism of the narrative. Where in your text This coincidence occurs in Chapter 9 and is revisited in Chapter 20. Suggested improvements Rework the connection between Remi and Cecilia's mother to make it less coincidental and more organically integrated into the story. This could involve creating a more plausible backstory for Remi or establishing a different kind of connection between the two families. Yes, there is coincidence here, but serendipity does happen in real life. My rule is that I am allowed one fortuitous event per novel. There are not so many men who go to prostitutes, and not many brothels in Madrid at the time, so this incident is not that unlikely. Repetitive Use of Rivers of Babylon - Minor concern The repeated use of the song Rivers of Babylon, while thematically relevant, becomes somewhat heavy-handed and predictable. The song's recurrence loses its impact and can feel like a contrived motif. Where in your text The song appears in Chapters 21, 22, and 27. Suggested improvements Vary the musical references and use other songs or cultural elements to reinforce the themes of exile, captivity, and liberation. This will create a richer and more nuanced soundscape for the story, avoiding the repetitive use of a single song. Rivers of Babylon sounded continuously in 1978. At the time, there were not so many radio stations in Spain, and they played the same songs over and over again. Music was not as diverse in 1978 as it is now. Besides, I use the repetition of the song to enhance the oppressive atmosphere of these chapters. The song acts as a mirror to bring back Cecilia’s trauma and change her actions.  Characters Engaging Portrayal of Cecilia's Defiance - Working well Cecilia's defiant spirit and determination to live life on her own terms, despite facing societal and familial pressures, are compellingly portrayed. Her proactive choices and her refusal to be controlled create a strong and inspiring character arc. Where in your text This defiance is evident in Chapters 7, 11, 21, 24, 25, and 27. Cecilia's Implausible Angelique Success - Major concern Cecilia's sudden success and popularity at Angelique, despite being new and inexperienced, feels unrealistic and unearned. Her effortless ability to attract and satisfy clients contradicts the struggles described by other prostitutes. Where in your text This issue arises in Chapter 11, during Cecilia's conversation with Carolina about the difficulties of the job, and continues through subsequent chapters detailing her work at Angelique. Suggested improvements Make Cecilia's success more believable by showing her learning and adapting to the challenges of prostitution. Portray her initial struggles and gradual improvement, rather than instant popularity. This could involve interactions with other prostitutes, difficult clients, or moments of self-doubt and reflection. I did some research on prostitution. In every brothel there is a ‘queen’ prostitute who is wanted by most clients and envied by the other whores. Cecilia ascends to this position because 1) she’s young and sexy; 2) she’s educated and well-spoken, a college student; 3) throughout all my novels, I give Cecilia a ‘super-power’, which is that everybody falls in love with her. Some people are charismatic, and Cecilia is one of them. The fact that this is rated as a major concern signals a flaw with MA, in my opinion. It’s not good at rating the importance of criticisms. Compelling Backstory of Yi Shen - Working well Yi Shen's backstory, revealed in Chapter 16, is compelling and adds depth to his character. His experiences in Vietnam, his escape to Thailand, and his time as a Buddhist monk provide a rich and intriguing background that informs his actions and his philosophy. Where in your text This backstory is revealed in Chapter 16. Poignant Depiction of Malena's Trauma - Working well Malena's trauma and her struggles with panic attacks are poignantly portrayed, creating a realistic and empathetic depiction of her emotional vulnerability. Her character's flaws and her efforts to heal add depth and complexity to the narrative. Where in your text This portrayal is evident in Chapters 15, 17, and 27. Inconsistent Portrayal of Concha - Concern Concha's character is inconsistently portrayed, shifting between caring and hostile behavior towards Cecilia without clear reasons or transitions. Her actions and dialogue often contradict her established personality and motivations. Where in your text This inconsistency is noticeable in Chapter 1, during Concha's interactions with Cecilia regarding Julio, and becomes more prominent in later chapters, such as Chapter 26 where they discuss Cecilia's prostitution. Suggested improvements Develop a more consistent and nuanced portrayal of Concha. Explore her internal conflicts, motivations, and the reasons behind her shifting behavior towards Cecilia. Provide clearer transitions between her caring and hostile moments, showing the emotional or situational triggers. MA doesn’t appreciate the complexity of Cecilia’s mother. She carries a profound trauma and heartbreak inside her that is hinted in this novel and fully resolved in my fourth novel. The problem with the AI is that it has no patience with mysteries in the plot designed to add depth to the narrative and excite the curiosity of the reader. Unbelievable Laura's Sudden Generosity - Concern Laura's sudden generosity and support for Cecilia, after their falling out and her engagement to Julio, feels unearned and inconsistent with her established character. Her motivations for helping Cecilia are unclear and lack a believable explanation. Where in your text This issue arises in Chapter 22, where Laura offers Cecilia shelter and support despite their strained relationship, and continues in subsequent chapters where Laura actively helps Cecilia avoid Luis. Suggested improvements Provide a more plausible explanation for Laura's change in behavior. Explore her internal conflicts, motivations, and the reasons behind her sudden generosity. Show her emotional journey and the process of reconciling with Cecilia, making her actions more believable. Same problem. The motivations of Laura are the biggest mystery in the trilogy, leading to an unexpected explanation in the third novel. I am actually glad that the AI was not smart enough to guess Laura’s motives. Unrealistic Dialogues - Concern The dialogues often feel unrealistic and stilted, with characters speaking in overly formal or expository ways. The conversations lack natural flow and don't always reflect the characters' personalities or emotional states. Where in your text This issue is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in scenes involving complex explanations or emotional confrontations, such as Cecilia's conversations with Yi Shen, Julio, and Laura. Suggested improvements Rewrite the dialogues to make them more natural and believable. Use contractions, colloquialisms, and interruptions to create a more authentic flow. Tailor the language and tone to each character's personality and emotional state, ensuring that their voices are distinct and relatable. There is little I can do to change this. My characters live in my head and speak with their own voices. It’s true that dialogues in novels are unrealistic in that, in real life, there are much more interruptions and people speaking over each other. However, this does not make good narrative. Few novels show this kind of messy dialogue. Even movies don’t do it. Contradictory Character Details of Laura - Concern Laura's character exhibits contradictory behavior, shifting between genuine concern for Cecilia and manipulative actions to secure her relationship with Julio. These inconsistencies make her motivations unclear and her character less believable. Where in your text This issue is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in Chapter 5, where Laura orchestrates the ménage à trois, and in Chapters 19, 22, 25, and 27, where her actions and dialogue reveal conflicting intentions. Suggested improvements Clarify Laura's motivations and create a more consistent portrayal of her character. Explore her internal conflicts and the reasons behind her manipulative behavior, showing her emotional journey and the complexities of her relationship with both Cecilia and Julio. I addressed this above. Laura’s character makes complete sense once you understand what she really wants. Smart readers would have guessed it halfway through this novel. Some of my beta readers did. The AI is clueless, which is great! Strong Voice of Cecilia - Working well Cecilia's voice, particularly in her internal monologues, is strong and distinctive, reflecting her intelligence, her emotional intensity, and her defiant spirit. Her unique perspective and her willingness to challenge societal norms create a compelling and memorable character. Where in your text This is evident throughout the manuscript, particularly in Chapters 6, 8, 14, 18, and 25. So, are Cecilia’s internal monologues good or bad? The AI sometimes gives contradictory instructions. Inconsistent Character Details of Cecilia - Minor concern Cecilia's physical appearance and clothing choices are inconsistently described, sometimes appearing glamorous and provocative, and other times dressed for practicality and anonymity. These inconsistencies detract from her character's coherence. Where in your text This issue is noticeable throughout the manuscript, particularly in scenes where Cecilia is working at Angelique (Chapters 11, 15, 17, 20) compared to when she is trying to avoid Luis (Chapters 24, 26). Suggested improvements Create a more consistent visual portrayal of Cecilia. Consider her motivations and context when describing her clothing and appearance. If she is trying to avoid detection, her attire should reflect this. When she is working or engaging in BDSM activities, her appearance can be more provocative, aligning with the context of those scenes. Cecilia is like any other real woman: she changes clothes and personalities depending on which environment she’s in. It seems like the AI wants me to turn Cecilia into a stereotype, instead of the complex and changing woman that she is. I see this as a strength of my novel. Underdeveloped Malena's Healing - Minor concern Malena's healing process from her past trauma feels somewhat rushed and underdeveloped. While the narrative shows her initial breakthrough, it doesn't fully explore the complexities of her recovery or its long-term impact on her relationship with Lorenzo. Where in your text This issue is evident in Chapter 17, where Malena reveals her past trauma and experiences a cathartic moment, but the subsequent chapters don't delve deeply into her ongoing healing process. Suggested improvements Develop Malena's healing journey more thoroughly. Show her coping with the aftermath of revealing her trauma, her ongoing struggles, and her gradual recovery. Explore how her healing affects her relationship with Lorenzo and her overall sense of self, making her character arc more impactful and relatable. MA is right in that trauma like Malena’s doesn’t heal so easily. However, this story is about Cecilia, not Malena. Dwelling too much on Malena’s healing process would distract from the main plot. In successive novel’s Malena’s trauma resurfaces repeatedly, as it would happen in real life. In this novel, I just show that Malena, Lorenzo and Cecilia successfully learn how to manage Malena’s main trigger: sex. This is realistic. Unclear Yi Shen's Motivations - Minor concern Yi Shen's motivations for helping Cecilia and other prostitutes are not fully explored or explained. While the narrative hints at his compassion and his Buddhist beliefs, the reasons behind his dedication to their well-being are not entirely clear. Where in your text This issue is noticeable throughout the manuscript, particularly in scenes where Yi Shen offers advice or support to Cecilia and other prostitutes, such as Chapters 7, 11, 16, and 24. Suggested improvements Develop Yi Shen's motivations more clearly. Connect his actions to specific experiences from his backstory, demonstrating how his past has shaped his compassion and his desire to help others. This could involve flashbacks, internal monologues, or dialogues with other characters that reveal his inner thoughts and beliefs. I think I explained Yi Shen’s motives quite well. His Buddhism is enough. Perhaps the AI doesn’t understand Buddhism? Inconsistent Portrayal of Yi Shen - Minor concern Yi Shen's character is inconsistently portrayed, sometimes acting as a wise and compassionate mentor, and other times exhibiting a more detached and pragmatic approach. These inconsistencies can be jarring and make his character feel less cohesive. Where in your text This issue is noticeable in the contrast between Yi Shen's philosophical discussions with Cecilia (Chapters 7 and 16) and his more practical advice and actions related to Angelique (Chapters 7, 11, and 24). Suggested improvements Develop a more consistent and nuanced portrayal of Yi Shen, reconciling his philosophical beliefs with his practical actions. Show how his compassion and his pragmatic approach work together to inform his decisions and his interactions with other characters. Again, the AI seems to have a problem with real people and their contradictions. If anything, real people are even more irrational than Yi Shen. Unclear Motivations Behind Luis's Actions - Minor concern Luis's motivations for persecuting Cecilia are not fully explored or explained beyond a simplistic sense of family honor and a desire to control her. The narrative doesn't delve deeply into his psychological complexities or the underlying reasons behind his violent behavior. Where in your text This issue is apparent throughout the manuscript, as Luis's actions and dialogue primarily focus on controlling Cecilia's behavior without revealing his deeper motivations. Suggested improvements Explore Luis's motivations more thoroughly, going beyond surface-level explanations of family honor and control. Show his internal struggles, his psychological complexities, and the underlying reasons behind his obsession with Cecilia and his violent behavior. Luis is kept mysterious on purpose. The novel is narrated from Cecilia’s point of view, and she doesn’t completely understand her brother. This mystery makes Luis more threatening because he is unpredictable. Inconsistent Behavior of Yi Shen - Minor concern Yi Shen's reluctance to help Cecilia confront Luis directly contradicts his established character as a protector and his history of confronting injustice. This inconsistency undermines his credibility and makes his motivations unclear. Where in your text This issue is evident in Chapter 24, when Cecilia proposes a plan for revenge against Luis, and Yi Shen expresses reservations and suggests alternative solutions. Suggested improvements Develop Yi Shen's response to Cecilia's situation more consistently. Explain his reluctance to engage in direct confrontation with Luis, connecting it to his past experiences or his philosophical beliefs. Show his internal struggles and his thought process, making his decisions more believable. I think is plenty clear why Yi Shen doesn’t want to attack Luis: this will just escalate the problem. His solution is much wiser. Setting Vivid Depiction of BDSM Encounters - Working well The BDSM encounters between Cecilia and Johnny, and later with Marcos, are vividly described, creating an intense and immersive experience for the reader. The narrative effectively uses sensory details and emotional nuances to capture the power dynamics, the physical sensations, and the psychological complexities of these encounters. Where in your text These encounters are vividly depicted in Chapters 10, 15, and 17. Of course! I have plenty of personal experience in BDSM, unlike many people who write about it without first-hand experience. Inconsistent Details of Angelique - Concern The portrayal of Angelique is inconsistent, shifting between a safe haven for prostitutes and a potentially dangerous environment. The narrative doesn't reconcile these conflicting aspects, making the setting feel less believable. Where in your text This issue is apparent in Chapters 9 and 11, where the positive aspects of Angelique are emphasized, but later chapters (like 21 and 24) highlight the dangers Cecilia faces due to her association with the establishment. Suggested improvements Develop a more nuanced and consistent portrayal of Angelique, acknowledging both its positive and negative aspects. Show the complexities of the environment and how the characters navigate the potential dangers while finding support within the community. Angelique wants to be a safe haven for prostitutes, but not always succeeds in being that. This is just life. The problematic of Angelique becomes one of the plot points in my fourth novel, Cecilia’s Tribe . Authentic Portrayal of Post-Franco Madrid - Working well While not pervasive, the story offers glimpses into the social and cultural atmosphere of post-Franco Madrid, creating a sense of time and place. The descriptions of specific locations, like the Café Molinero and the streets of Malasaña, evoke the city's unique character and historical context. Where in your text These glimpses are evident in Chapters 2, 7, 9, 11, and 21. Of course! I lived those years. Weak Sense of Place in Madrid Setting - Minor concern The portrayal of Madrid lacks distinct atmosphere and sensory details, making the setting feel generic and unmemorable. The narrative doesn't fully capture the city's unique character or its social and cultural nuances. Where in your text This issue is evident throughout the manuscript, as the descriptions of Madrid are often vague and lack specific details that evoke a strong sense of place. Suggested improvements Add more vivid descriptions and sensory details to bring Madrid to life. Capture the city's unique atmosphere, its architectural style, its cultural nuances, and the social dynamics of its different neighborhoods. Use sensory details to evoke a stronger sense of place and immerse the reader in the setting. This contradicts the previous comment. It sounds like the AI wants me to write a tourist guide to Madrid. My description of Malasaña during Cecilia’s escape is quite detailed. The Madrid I show here is quite different from what a tourist would experience. Conclusion: How good is MA? Despite all my disagreements, I am quite happy that I used MA. Amongst the many wrong critiques, there were two or three that made me make some major changes in the novel. I think that my novel is much better now. The main advantage of MA, just like with a human editor, is to force you to see your novel from a different point of view. It brings to the foreground some questions that you may not ask otherwise. A human editor may do a better job, but most writers cannot afford one. And human editors may bring their own prejudices, too. In a novel about controversial and upsetting subjects like BDSM, gender violence and rape, the author risks getting enmeshed justifying his ideas to the editor. AI doesn’t argue or try to change your beliefs.  In summary, it is important to read the criticism of MA with an open mind, being aware of the limitations of AI.

Mapping the divide of Left Cat in a cage. Photo by the author. The label ‘woke’ Woke: ‘Woke’ is a slur of conservatives to mock the Left. In reality, this word is just a warning between Black people to be aware of the racism they face. If you use ‘woke’ as a negative term, you are a conservative. Liberal: Call it whatever you want, but there is a nasty ideology that has been corrupting the Left, turning it into something unpalatable to most people. You could call it Identity Politics, but a four-letter word would do quite nicely. The label ‘liberal’ Woke: We are the liberals! There is no such division in the Left. Anybody who doesn’t think like us is a conservative. Liberal: Not so! Liberalism is a series of values that grew out of the Enlightenment, focusing on humanism, rationality, science, secularism, free-speech and wealth redistribution. The woke have abandoned most of those values. Diversity Woke: Diversity is to value the contributions of people of different races, cultures, nationalities, genders and sexual orientations. Liberal: That is fine, but the most important diversity of all is diversity of ideas. Without that, culture stagnates and becomes dogmatic. Equality versus equity Woke: Equality is outdated because it does not take into consideration systemic discrimination based on race and gender. Therefore, people from oppressed groups deserve special consideration. Discrimination can only be defeated when everybody achieves success in life (equality of outcome). We call that equity. Liberal: Equality means that everybody is treated the same by the law, the state, corporations and society, without privileging any particular group. Everybody should be given equal access to resources; what they achieve with those resources is up to each individual (equality of opportunity). Equity is just another word for privileging certain groups. Inclusion Woke: Inclusion consists in making sure oppressed groups are no longer excluded because of their race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. Liberal: Woke is hypocritical because it actually excludes men, Whites and heterosexuals by treating them with contempt and labeling them as oppressors. People should be accountable for their own deeds, not the deeds of their ancestors. Free-speech Woke: Free-speech is an excuse to propagate the ideas of the powerful, who have access to mass-media while silencing the oppressed. Therefore, racist, misogynistic and colonialist ideas need to be canceled to hold space for the voices of the victims. Offensive speech is tantamount to violence. Liberal: Free-speech is an essential value of the Left. Only freedom of expression can guarantee a diversity of ideas and the ability to openly challenge unsound opinions. Both these things are essential to find the optimal solutions to societal problems. Canceling is an excuse for dogmatism. It leads to the ossification of the Left, which becomes unable to fight Conservatism. Rationality Woke: Emphasis on rationality is a hidden way for Whites and men to oppress other races and women, who use other methods of knowledge. Intuition and spirituality are as valuable as rationality. The lived experience of oppressed people should count the same as abstract ideas. Liberal: Reason, facts and evidence are the only way we can construct a shared reality in which to base our laws and invest our resources. Science Woke: Science is the bulwark of Western civilization, which has been oppressing the rest of the world with its colonialism. Other cultures, particularly indigenous cultures, have their own wisdom, which is as valid as science. Postmodernism is right in deconstructing science as a system of oppression. Liberal: Science is the most valuable thing we have. It allows us to understand Nature and bring it under control. It provides objective knowledge on which to base our societal and political decisions. Science originated from the cross-breeding of multiple civilizations, including Greek, Roman, Arabic, Hindu and Chinese. It can coexist with other cultures as long as they abandon religious dogmatism. Science has created the most rich, powerful and advanced civilization that ever existed. Postmodernism is anti-science and irrational; it has not produced anything of value. Sex/gender Woke: There are up to 72 different sexes. Sex is similar to gender. They are both cultural constructs, anyway. Sex is assigned at birth. Later in life, anybody can choose their sex by simply declaring it. Toxic masculinity is responsible for the oppression of women and the loneliness of men; men should abandon it and adopt a more feminine behavior. Liberal: There are only two sexes, male and female, depending on the reproductive cells they produce: sperm for males, oocytes for females. Gender is a cultural construct based on the biological reality of sex. People can change their gender by changing their sexual characteristics with hormone treatment and surgery, becoming transgender men or women.   Sexuality Woke: Sex is one the main ways women and homosexuals are oppressed by the heteropatriarchy. Sex is political. Pornography and prostitution are ways in which men objectify women’s bodies and should be illegal. There is no right to having sex because that would led to the exploitation of women. Penis-in-vagina penetration is degrading for women; non-penetrative forms of sex like oral sex or mutual masturbation should be preferred. Liberal: Sexual freedom is an essential part of personal autonomy. Everybody should be free to have consensual sex with any adult, in any way they please. Sex work is work and should not be persecuted. Contraception and abortion should be legal to guarantee reproductive freedom. People should be free to marry people of the opposite or the same sex, in whatever combination of genders. Wealth Woke: The rich are just one among a number of oppressors; for example, the Whites, the heteropatriarchy, colonialism and Western culture. We need to fight all power dynamics, not just the rich. Liberal: Wealth redistribution should be the main goal of the Left. The logic of capitalism makes it so that the rich become richer by investing their money, while the poor become poorer by using whatever little money they have to subsist. Wealth disparity is, by far, the largest power dynamic in our society because the obscenely rich can buy unlimited political power. Therefore, the State needs to balance the economy by taxing the rich and giving to the poor. Health Woke: Western medicine is fine, but everybody should take care of their health by developing healthier lifestyles, eating plant-based foods, and getting enough sleep and exercise. Alternative medicine can be as effective as traditional medicine. Liberal: Healthcare is a human right. Nobody should suffer or die because they cannot afford access to medical treatment. Health insurance companies have a perverse incentive in minimizing or even denying medical care to maximize profits. Therefore, there should be a universal healthcare system run by the State. Education Woke: Education is often a way to perpetuate systems of oppression and cultural homogeneity. Standpoint theory shows that people with different identities cannot communicate their living experiences to one another. Therefore, education should be geared towards unmasking and deconstructing power dynamics. It should hold space for the voice to the oppressed and recognize their lived experiences.  Liberal: Education is essential to provide people with the knowledge they need to succeed in life. In particular, people need to learn critical thinking and science, because this provides objective knowledge about reality. Democracy is inviable when people do not have the knowledge necessary to evaluate political decisions. Postmodernism and the woke ideologies that are based on it degrade knowledge by opposing science and making subjective experience as valid as objective evidence. A state-run system of education with teaching criteria based on science and rationality is necessary to create a common reality for political decisions and equal opportunity for jobs.  Class Woke: Social class is just one among many systems of oppression, among which racism and misogyny stand as the most evil. Intersectionality guarantees that all systems of oppression are fought equally. Liberal: Social classes are established through economic exploitation and wealth inequality. Since economic power is the most important force in a capitalist society, big wealth disparity between social classes is the key form of oppression. Injustices because of race and gender are not as reliable indicators of oppression as class, since there are rich people of any gender or color. Besides, an effective system of wealth redistribution would erase differences in race and gender. A well-paid and satisfied working class is the foundation of a productive and affluent society. It is a great shame that the Left has lost the working class to populism. Without the support and the votes of the working class, the Left is doomed.

Pleasure is not addictive and does not decrease mental energy Examples of enriched environment. From (McCreary and Metz, 2016), Research Gate . Dopamine D2 receptor downregulation is the hallmark of addiction In the previous article in this series, I showed that the downregulation of dopamine D2 receptors is the hallmark of drug addiction. This view is widely shared by investigators of addiction (Trifilieff et al., 2013; Trifilieff and Martinez, 2014; Volkow and Morales, 2015). All addictive drugs downregulate the D2 receptors. Non-addictive drugs, like cannabis or psychodelics, do not downregulate D2 receptors. D2 receptors in the medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the indirect pathway , which connects the nucleus accumbens with the frontal cortex, are essential to maintain motivation, sustained effort and focused attention. Therefore, we could consider them the molecular foundation of mental energy. Without enough D2 receptors, drug addicts live in a state of dissatisfaction and lack of motivation. They lack mental energy or, rather, all their mental energy is consumed by drug seeking.  With this in mind, we can answer the questions of whether some behaviors, like sex, gaming or exercise, are 1) addictive and 2) decrease our mental energy. If so, they should downregulate the D2 receptors, like all addictive drugs do. The controversy: are behaviors addictive? People who think that some behaviors are addictive often refer to a review paper from 2011 (Olsen, 2011). Table 1 of that paper summarizes the information in this regard and has been reproduced in Wikipedia . That table is a good source of references concerning the evidence that behaviors are addictive. In the columns, it lists five things that are supposed to induce addiction: opiates, psychostimulants (cocaine, amphetamines), food high in fat and sugar, sex, exercise, enriched environment and sensory reinforcement. Opiates and psychostimulants are stereotypical addictive drugs, so they are a good positive control for addiction. It’s nice to have sex in its own separate category. An enriched environment (see image) means that rats or mice are housed in cages containing toys, running wheels and other rats or mice (McCreary and Metz, 2016). It has been shown to increase the intelligence and lower the stress of the animals. Sensory reinforcement means that the rats or mice are exposed to novel sensations, like new objects, food or smells. Exercise, enriched environment and sensory reinforcement shouldn’t be lumped into a single category, since they may have different effects on the brain. However, they are unquestionably healthy, so they could serve as a control for things that should not be avoided. Still, the authors make it clear that they consider them too addictive behaviors. Item 3, food high in fat and sugar, is the most tricky category. Some foods may be addictive because they produce spikes in insulin, a hormone that seems to have pronounced effects on the reward pathway (Davis et al., 2008). Let’s now examine the different items on the rows of that table, which are proposed as markers of addiction. I exclude items that do not apply to sex and exercise / environmental enrichment / sensory reinforcement because they are not relevant to this discussion. I also exclude things that have opposite or inconsistent effects between opioids and psychostimulants, since they are not good markers of addiction. Downregulation of D2 receptors  is in the 8 th  row of the table. As I stated before, opioids and psychostimulants downregulate them. So does food rich in fat and sugar. However, exercise / enriched environment / sensory reinforcement upregulate the D2 receptors, that is, they do exactly the opposite of addictive drugs. The entry for sex in empty.  Cross-sensitization with psychostimulants , psychostimulant self-administration , and reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior  are listed as markers of addiction in three other rows. Here again, exercise / enriched environment / sensory reinforcement have effects opposite of those of psychostimulants and opioids. This means that these behaviors decrease the interest in addictive drugs, that is, that they have anti-addictive properties. This is hardly compatible with the idea that these behaviors are addictive. CREB phosphorylation decreases   and delta -FosB  increases   in the nucleus accumbens head two other rows. They are affected similarly by addictive drugs and exercise / enriched environment / sensory reinforcement. However, these are general markers of neuronal activation. It makes sense that these three things activate neurons in the nucleus accumbens, because they activate the reward pathway. Exercise requires motivation. Sensory stimulation and a rich environment prod the animal into action. In summary, exercise / enriched environment / sensory reinforcement have opposite effects from drugs on D2 receptors and drug seeking behaviors. This shows that these behaviors are not addictive, and even have anti-addictive properties. A study examined social media “addiction” (Fournier et al., 2023) as defined by six components: salience, tolerance, mood modification, relapse, withdrawal and conflict. It found that these six components are not consistent with each other and are not associated with mental problems. Exercise Some scientists consider exercise addictive (Olsen, 2011; Dinardi et al., 2021). However, exercise has been known since the 80s to increase D2 receptors in the rodent striatum (MacRae et al., 1987; Bauer et al., 2020). In rats, High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) increased D2 receptors, but not D1 receptors, in the shell of the nucleus accumbens (Tyler et al., 2023). In humans, the results are less clear. In two patients with early Parkinson’s disease, treadmill training for 8 weeks increased D2 receptors, measured with [18F]fallypride PET imaging (Fisher et al., 2013). Another study in older subjects using PET with the D2/D3 receptor ligand [11C]raclopride (Jonasson et al., 2019) found that aerobic exercise did not increase D2 receptors. A study of 19 methamphetamine users with [18F]fallypride PET imaging found that exercise for 8 weeks increased striatal D2 receptors in the exercise group but not the control group (Robertson et al., 2016). This shows that exercise can be used to reverse the downregulation of D2 receptors produced by drug addiction. Gambling Pathological gambling is the stereotypical compulsive behavior, the only behavior classified as addictive in the DMS-5 (Clark et al., 2019). However, gambling did not change the amount of D2 or D3 receptors in the striatum or the substantia nigra (Boileau et al., 2013). In this human study, positron emission tomography (PET) imaging was used to measure the binding of an agonist of D3 receptors (PHNO) and an agonist of both D2 and D3 receptors (raclopride). No differences were found between 13 pathological gamblers and 12 control subjects. A review of human studies (Clark et al., 2019) found no changes in D2 receptors in gamblers. In addition, MRI imaging found only small changes in gray and white matter in gamblers, while these changes are major in drug addicts. Functional MRI found some changes in the ventral striatum and the medial prefrontal cortex, but the direction of these changes was not consistent between studies. Therefore, the neurophysiological profile of gambling is completely different from drug addiction. The D2A1 variant of the human D2 receptor is involved in addiction The human D2 receptor gene has several variants, which produce D2 receptor proteins with different functions. In particular, the Taq A1 variant (D2A1) is commonly found in drug addicts and alcoholics (Comings and Blum, 2000). It has been proposed that the reason for this is that individuals with this variant have an abnormal reward pathway, something that has been called reward deficiency syndrome  (Blum et al., 1996; Comings and Blum, 2000). The D2A1 variant decreases the amount of D2 receptors and produces less cognitive flexibility (Fagundo et al., 2014). Pathological gambling is also associated with the D2A1 variant of the D2 receptor. In a genetic study (Comings et al., 1996), 50.9% of the subjects with gambling disorder carried the D2A1 variant, compared with 25.9% of controls. The severity of the gambling disorder correlated with the expression of the D2A1 variant. This supports the idea that having less D2 receptors causes compulsive behaviors. While addictive drugs downregulate the D2 receptors, in gambling the decrease in the D2 receptors is not due to the behavior itself, but to genetic causes. Does sex downregulate D2 receptors? With all this in mind, we can address the questions of whether sex is addictive or causes a decrease in mental energy. Unfortunately, I could not find any studies on the effect of sex on D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens. One study in rats (Nutsch et al., 2016) found that sexual experience increased the number of neurons with D2 receptors in the medial preoptic area  of the hypothalamus, a brain region in which dopamine and D2 receptors trigger copulation (Melis and Argiolas, 1995; Giuliano and Allard, 2001; Nutsch et al., 2016). It is possible that sex also upregulates D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens. In fact, sex has much in common with exercise, enriched environment (which includes social interactions) and sensory stimulation, activities that upregulate D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Even gambling, the model “addictive” behavior, does not downregulate D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Therefore, we could infer that sex either has no effect or upregulates D2 receptors in the reward pathway. If so, sex should not be addictive or decrease the mental energy mediated by the reward pathway. Effects of dopamine on sex  Dopamine, acting on D2 and D4 receptors, has stimulatory effects on all phases of sexual activity: arousal, erection and copulation (Mas et al., 1990; Komisaruk et al., 2006; Melis et al., 2022). In men, the non-selective agonist of D1 and D2 receptors apomorphine has been used to treat erectile dysfunction (Giuliano and Allard, 2001). In female rats, dopamine facilitates sexual arousal and orgasm (Uitti et al., 1989; Shen and Sata, 1990). However, these effects of dopamine on sex are primarily mediated by hypothalamic neuronal pathways, the incertohypothalamic, the tuberoinfundibular and the hypothalamospinal systems (Melis et al., 2022). Although dopamine is released in the nucleus accumbens during sex (Mas et al., 1990), the importance of this for sexual behavior is considered marginal (Paredes and Agmo, 2004). Let’s keep in mind that motivation for any behavior involves dopamine release in the reward pathway. Mice with a mutation that makes them unable to release dopamine in the nucleus accumbens lack motivation to do anything at all, including drinking and eating (Wise and Jordan, 2021). Why is sex considered addictive? Then, why do some scientists consider sex addictive? The evidence provided by Olsen (Olsen, 2011) is quite flimsy. He does not report any effect of sex on D2 receptors, psychostimulant self-administration and reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. The main evidence he provides is the following. Sex cross-sensitizes with psychostimulants , unlike exercise / enriched environment / sensory reinforcement. This means that rats addicted to cocaine have more sex. Conversely, rats that have more sex like cocaine. However, this doesn’t mean that the rats are addicted to sex. It could simply mean that once a rat is used to seeking a reward, it tends to do it more, no matter if the reward is sex or cocaine. Seeking a reward is not the same as being addicted to it. Conditioned place preference  is an experiment in which a rat gets an injection of a drug in one of two chambers. If the rat wants the drug, it will go back to the chamber where it was given the drug. If the rat doesn’t like the drug, it will avoid that chamber. A rat habituated to having sex chooses the same chamber where it has been given cocaine. Olsen takes this as an indication that sex is addictive, but this argument doesn’t hold to close scrutiny. Rats exposed to a rich environment also choose the chamber where they are given cocaine. However, not the rats habituated to exercise or to sugary food. Therefore, conditioned place preference is not a consistent indicator of addiction. The L-DOPA paradox As I explained in a previous article, L-DOPA is a precursor of dopamine that is given to Parkinson’s patients to alleviate their symptoms. Since L-DOPA bypasses the regulation of dopamine synthesis by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, it leads to a dramatic increase of dopamine in its synapses (Sulzer et al., 2016). Therefore, there is a greater release of dopamine. The L-DOPA paradox is that, like all addictive drugs, L-DOPA produces an increase of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, but it is not addictive. What L-DOPA does, in some of the patients taking it, is increase compulsive behaviors, mostly hypersexuality, but also gambling, overeating and shopping (Potenza et al., 2007; Ceravolo et al., 2010). One possible explanation for this paradox is that, in patients who take L-DOPA, dopamine is still released in short spikes by natural stimuli, while addictive drugs produce long increases in dopamine. It could be that what leads to addiction is the duration of the dopamine increase, and not its magnitude. This is consistent with the idea that D2 receptor downregulation is what causes addiction. A prolonged increase in dopamine would lead to the repeated internalization of the D2 receptors, causing their degradation. In contrast, the brief spike in dopamine produced by natural stimuli internalizes the D2 receptor just once, no matter how high the spike is, and this does not downregulate the D2 receptors. This supports the idea that drug addiction and compulsive behaviors have different neurophysiological foundations. Still, the fact that L-DOPA increases compulsive behaviors (although only in a fraction of the people who take it) indicates that dopamine is involved in compulsion. This supports the idea that drug addiction and compulsive behaviors have different neurophysiological bases. Although the fact that L-DOPA increases compulsive behaviors (although only in a fraction of the people who take it) indicates that dopamine is involved in compulsion, this seems to be an extension of its normal function rather than the radical and long-lasting alteration produced by addictive drugs.   Semantics or neuroscience? It is undeniable that some people develop a strong compulsion to gambling, watching porn, shopping, using social media, exercising, among other behaviors. Then, why not say that these behaviors are addictive? Perhaps this is just a semantic problem. Whether these behaviors are addictive depends on how we define addiction. If it is defined simply as developing a strong need towards something, then these behaviors could be considered addictive. However, the evidence that I show here indicates that this compulsion is not mediated by dopamine in the reward pathway, which is the main goal of this article series. In contrast, drug addiction is characterized by profound, long-lasting alterations in the reward pathway. This includes D2 downregulation in the reward pathway, which is produced by all addictive drugs and explains the impulsivity found in drug addicts. Moreover, many compulsive behaviors have opposite effects to addictive drugs on cross-sensitization with psychostimulants, psychostimulant self-administration, and reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. Giving the same name to two things with substantial neurophysiological signatures will lead to confusion. Therefore, I think it is better to reserve the name ‘addiction’ to substance use disorder, and to use ‘compulsion’ to name obsessive behaviors. What cause compulsive behaviors? If compulsive behaviors are not caused by alterations in the reward pathway, then what causes them? It could be that compulsive behaviors are just habits that are difficult to break. Habits are automatic behaviors triggered by clues in our environment . The reward pathway plays a role in learning the association between the clue and the behavior, but this happens with any habit, good or bad. Social isolation, stress, boredom or strong beliefs may drive some individuals to focus on behaviors that provide excitement and relief from a pointless life. It is this decision that then recruits the reward pathway, so that these behaviors provide a pathological hyper-motivation and excessive focus on a single activity. This is important because it shows that we cannot treat compulsive behaviors like drug addiction. What people need to come out of these compulsions is not guilt-trips, twelve steps programs or medications like methadone, naltrexone or buprenorphine. What they need is another source of motivation, to expand the scope of their lives, to find meaning elsewhere. Does pleasure decrease mental energy? Circling back to the original question of this series of articles, the evidence I provided shows that sex and other forms of pleasure do not decrease our mental energy. Motivation and sustained effort are driven by the D2 receptors in the indirect pathway of the reward system and they are not downregulated by pleasure. In fact, some forms of pleasure, like exercise, playing or social interactions, increase the amount of D2 receptors and hence should increase our mental energy. There is another problem with the ideas about dopamine in pop psychology. It is believed that pleasure produces ‘dopamine hits’. As we will see in the next article, this is not true. Dopamine does not cause pleasure. Previous articles in this series Does Sex Deplete Our Mental Energy? 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Fighting misandry by emphasizing our common humanity From Wikimedia Commons . Today, November 19, is International Men’s Day . Lately, I have taken a renewed interest in men’s issues. In part, it was the realization that the Left is increasingly losing men to the Right. Men are half of the population and half the votes, so this is a losing proposition. Unless we can reverse the trend, we progressives will continue to lose elections. Although women are increasingly voting progressive, this is not enough to quench the loss of male votes. Also, a country politically polarized along gender lines cannot be a healthy society. I blame feminism for the loss of men to the Right. For over a hundred years, feminists have been saying that they don’t hate men, but this no longer seems to be true. It’s not just that some feminists openly say that they hate men; is that the other feminists do not dare contradict them and, quite often, even applaud them. The discourse of 4 th  wave feminism is seething with contempt for men. But for me, interest in men's issues is nothing new. It started in the 90s when I read Iron John , the book by poet Robert Bly that started the mythopoetic men’s movement. The book inspired me to look for my masculine identity, exploring my relationship with my father, my male role models and the women in my life. This kind of introspection complemented quite well my spiritual practice. I could not understand myself completely unless I accepted my masculinity. Sex is an essential part of our humanity. We cannot disregard it and understand our bodies, our desires and our emotions. Misandry, the hatred of men Misandry is the hatred of men, the counterpart of misogyny, the hatred of women. Just like with misogyny, the hatred of men is rarely stated openly, but manifest as contempt, invisibility, lack of empathy, stereotyping, double standards and, increasingly, laws that discriminate against men. And, just like it used to happen with misogyny, misandry has become so embedded in modern culture that it is hard to see it unless you know where to look. For example: Traditionally, men’s lives have been considered of lesser value than women’s lives. “Women and children first” is the standard in any emergency. In wars, men are sent to fight and die, while women stay safely home. Men are conscripted to serve in the army in many countries. I lost 14 months of my life to that, serving in what still was the fascist army of Spain and even becoming involved in the attempted coup against the new democracy of February 23, 1981. In a society in which men and women compete for the same jobs, this set back men’s careers at a crucial time in their lives. In South Korea, where men are drafted for two years but women do not have any similar obligation, this is causing a huge backlash against feminism. Gynocentrism  is a deformed ethical framework in which women’s concerns take precedent over men’s concerns. For example, women’s need to be safe from sexual abuse is considered more important than men’s need of not to be falsely accused and to be considered innocent until proven guilty. This is obviously incompatible with feminist’s claim that they seek equality. Gynocentrism is a form of bigotry, the mirror image of androcentrism  and male supremacy.   Affirmative action discriminate men competing with women for the same job, even when men are more qualified. In divorce, men often lose custody of their children or get fewer visitation rights. “Deadbeat dad” laws blacklist fathers the moment they have a child. When they get divorced, they risk getting their salaries garnished and being financially ruined by a system that not only funnel their money to their ex-wives but also to the State. There have been cases in which fathers have been forced to support children who were not their biological offspring, or adult sons and daughters. Men are stereotyped as rapists, child abusers, violent, stupid, lonely, non-empathetic and socially inept. When accused of sexual abuse, men are deemed guilty until proven innocent. If the case goes public, they condemned in the court of public opinion. Even when proven innocent, men are still considered guilty by society just because they have been accused by a woman. Physical abuse of men by their wives goes largely unreported because men are too ashamed to denounce it, and often not believed when they do. Violence against men by women often involves the use of weapons (knifes, pans and other kitchen utensils) and causes more damage than violence against women by men. Women who murder their husbands are often able to hide their crime, especially when it’s by poisoning. They get lesser sentences if discovered, and are often “understood” by a society that assumes that the men were mistreating them.   Men commit suicide more often than women. They are blamed for it, assuming that they were victims of toxic masculinity and even that they did it out of spite for their wives. The truth is that many men are driven to desperation by financial ruin due to having to pay child support, coupled with the isolation of being isolated from their children and not having the means to procure another lover. I have found plenty of evidence for all this in the book Legalizing Misandry , by Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young. The book forms part of a trilogy with Spreading Misandry  and Sanctifying Misandry , which I have not read yet. Another important book on the plight of men is Of Boys And Men , by Richard V. Reeves. The danger of victimism and Identity Politics It is good to be aware of the suffering and discrimination that men suffer these days. However, this negative view runs the risk of playing into the hands of the current epidemic of victimism. It is based on the narrow view of society as divided between victims as oppressor promoted by postmodernism. Feminism has painted men as oppressors, so the men’s movement counters by arguing that men, too, are victims of misandry. This competition for victim status is socially divisive, promoting a zero-sum game in which the rights of one group can only be gained by suppressing the rights of another group. In the best-case scenario, this encourages the politics of polarization in which the social gains produced by one political party are erased when the other party comes to power, as we are witnessing lately. In the worst-case scenario, this divisiveness will spiral into violence. Misandry encourages misogyny, as men feel increasingly aware of this zero-sum game and wronged by feminism and the increasing privileges of women. By allowing misandry and the contempt of men to take root, feminism loses its moral high ground. It is also shown to have lied about wanting equality and not hating men. As we are seeing, as the men’s right movement becomes stronger, it generates more misandry in feminism, which in turn causes more misogyny in men. In the end, misandry and misogyny are just two sides of the same coin: the belief that social order should be based on the confrontation the two sexes. It is the same belief that Identity Politics applies to race, religion, national origin, sexual orientation and any group division to which it can apply its ideology of victim-oppression confrontation. That is why is so important that we focus on the positive qualities of men and what their contribution to society. Unfortunately, doing so requires pushing back against a feminist ideology that demonizes maleness as toxic masculinity and prescribes as remedy the feminization of men.   Instead of centering victimization and divisiveness, we need to create a new culture based on empathy, collaboration, respect for our differences, and honoring our common humanity.   Copyright 2025 Hermes Solenzol

D1 receptors drive desire while D2 receptors mediate self-control The neuropeptide Y receptor in neurons when it is not internalized (top) or internalized (bottom). Confocal microscope images taken by the author. In the three previous articles in this series, I explained the relationship of dopamine with mental energy and addiction. I described the reward pathway and other dopaminergic pathways in the brain. Finally, I showed that ‘dopamine depletion’ at its synapses probably means changes in the dopamine receptors. Therefore, I this article I will describe the five dopamine receptors (D1-D5) and show how they are involved in mental energy and addiction. How dopamine receptors work Neurotransmitter receptors are proteins embedded in the membrane of neurons that bind the neurotransmitter. It’s like the neurotransmitter is a key that enters a key lock, the receptor, to open a door. Indeed, there is a pocket in the receptor that fits the neurotransmitter, just like a lock fits a key. And just like a key turns to open the lock, a neurotransmitter changes the conformation of the receptor to send a signal inside the neuron.   Dissociation of the alpha and beta-gamma subunits of G proteins. Neurotransmitter receptors signal using three main molecular mechanisms: Some receptors are ion channels : they form a pore across the membrane to allow ions to come in or out of the cell. Ions are atoms with too many or too few electrons, which gives them a negative or a positive electrical charge, respectively. Common positively charged ions (called anions) are like sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and calcium (Ca2+), whereas chloride (Cl-) is the most common negative ion (cation). These receptors behave much like a door: when they bind the neurotransmitter, their channel opens up, letting through the ions. Each receptor specializes in letting through a particular ion. For example, GABA-A receptors are chloride channels, while glutamate receptors are sodium channels. When ions move through the membrane, they change its electric potential, which changes the ability of the neuron to fire action potentials in its axon. Their signal is fast and short-lasting. Other receptors signal through G proteins , which attach to their intracellular side. G proteins are formed by three subunits: alpha, beta and gamma (see figure). Alpha subunits act as a bridge to enzymes that produce a second messenger: a small molecule that diffuses inside the cell and changes the function of different proteins. Different alpha subunits, named with lowercase letters like s, i, o, and q, activate or inhibit different enzymes. The beta and gamma subunits send other signals inside the cell. The signal of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)  is medium-lasting. A third type of receptors are enzymes called tyrosine kinases . When the receptor is activated by the neurotransmitter, the tyrosine kinase attaches a phosphate to key proteins, radically altering their function. This changes the behavior of the neuron, making it change, grow or wither. They often trigger major changes in neurons that are long-lasting. There are five dopamine receptors , named D1 through D5 (Hurley and Jenner, 2006; Mishra et al., 2018). All of them are GPCRs, the second type of receptors. The G proteins to which they are coupled either increase or decrease a key signaling molecule, cyclic adenosine-monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP has many effects, but most of them end up exciting the neuron, that is, making it fire more action potentials. Internalization and downregulation of receptors Dopamine receptors are not just present at the synapse, but also all over the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. This means that dopamine operates by volume transmission : it diffuses away from the synapse, activating receptors in nearby neurons. Some scientists call molecules that act this way neuromodulators , as opposed to neurotransmitters. Other substances that act by volume transmission include neuropeptides like the endorphins, substance P and oxytocin. When dopamine receptors are activated by dopamine, they cluster at the membrane and then get taken inside the neuron, forming endosomes , a process called receptor internalization (see figure at the top for an example) .  Internalized receptors cannot be activated by dopamine until they are recycled back to the membrane, a process that takes about 30 minutes. Some of the receptors are not recycled, but destroyed instead. Repeated internalization results in a decrease of the receptors in the neuron, which is called downregulation  of the receptors. The two families of dopamine receptors The five dopamine receptors are divided into two families, depending on whether they increase cAMP, and hence excite the neuron, or decrease it, inhibiting the neuron. The D1 family  comprises the D1 and D5 receptors. They couple to an alpha-s G protein (Gs); ‘s’ means stimulatory because it stimulates the synthesis of cAMP. D1 and D5 receptors excite neurons in the nucleus accumbens (the reward pathway) and the frontal cortex (the mesocortical pathway), making them more active and thus increasing motivation. The D2 family  comprises D2, D3 and D4 receptors. They couple to an alpha-i G protein (Gi); ‘i’ means inhibitory because it inhibits adenylyl cyclase, the enzyme that makes cAMP. This inhibits the neurons that have these receptors, so that they fire fewer action potentials. D2 family receptors also couple to alpha-o G proteins, where ‘o’ stands for other (Jiang et al., 2001). The function of Go proteins is still not well understood, but they inhibit some types of adenylyl cyclase, open potassium channels and close calcium channels, resulting in neuronal inhibition (Jiang et al., 2001). D2 receptors have an affinity for dopamine 10 to 100 times higher than the D1 receptors (Richfield et al., 1989; Martel and Gatti McArthur, 2020). Affinity of a receptor for a neurotransmitter means the amount (concentration) of the neurotransmitter that is required to activate the receptor. This means that D1 receptors require lots of dopamine to get activated, while D2 receptors can be activated by small concentrations of dopamine. Besides, the low affinity of the D2 receptors means that dopamine can activate them by volume transmission all over the neuron, while the action of the D1 receptors is confined to the synapse. As we will see, this has important consequences for the functioning of the reward pathway and the effect of addictive drugs.    Dopamine receptors in different brain regions Dopamine receptors are present in different amounts in the brain. Their rank of abundance is D1>D2>D3>D5>D4, so the most common ones are the D1 and D2 receptors (Mishra et al., 2018). The nucleus accumbens  has lots of D1 and D2 receptors and a good amount of D3 receptors (Hurley and Jenner, 2006; Mishra et al., 2018). The frontal cortex  has many D1 receptors, with lower amounts of D2, D3 and D4 receptors. The cingulate cortex  has many D1 receptors and some D4 receptors. Therefore, the dopamine receptors that interest us are the D1 and the D2 receptors, with D3 and D4 receptors taking the role of the D2 receptors in some brain areas. D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens are critical for the functioning of the reward pathway, while D1 receptors in the prefrontal and cingulate cortex mediate the motivation effect of the mesocortical pathway. The direct and indirect neuronal pathways and their effect on motivation Another key property of the D2 and D1 receptors is that they are located in different neurons of the nucleus accumbens and the dorsal striatum. These neurons are called medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs) and release the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. MSNs send axons to other parts of the midbrain, called the basal ganglia , mainly the substantia nigra and the globus pallidus (Hikida et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2013). MSNs with D1 receptors (D1-MSNs) form the direct pathway , meaning that they make only one synapse inside the basal ganglia (substantia nigra and VTA) before projecting to the thalamus, a way station to the cortex (see figure below). MSNs with D2 receptors (D2-MSNs) form the indirect pathway , which makes multiple synapses inside the basal ganglia (globus pallidus, then to the substantia nigra and VTA) before sending their message to the thalamus (see figure below). (a) Only the D1 neurons (red) send axons to the substantia nigra in the direct pathway. (b) Neurons with D2 receptors (green) and D1 receptors (red) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) are different and send axons to the ventral pallidum (VP). (c) The direct and indirect pathways go from the nucleus accumbens (NAc) to the ventral pallidum (VP), subthalamic nucleus (STN), substantia nigra (SN), ventral tegmental area (VTA) and mediodorsal thalamus (MD). From Smith et al. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 4: 546-552 (2013). MSNs also differ in the neuropeptides that they contain (Smith et al., 2013). D1-MSNs express dynorphin, an opioid that activates kappa opioid receptors, and substance P, a neuropeptide that increases pain and stress. D2-MSNs express enkephalin, an opioid that activates mu and delta opioid receptors, and neurotensin (see figure below). Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) with D1 and D2 dopamine receptors. From Smith et al. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 4: 546-552 (2013). The direct and indirect pathways have key effects on motivation and self-control (Hikida et al., 2010; Kravitz et al., 2012; Trifilieff et al., 2013; Volkow and Morales, 2015). The direct pathway and its D1 receptors serve to identify stimuli associated with a reward, filtering out stimuli that are not associated with it. The indirect pathway and its D2 receptors serve to avoid aversive stimuli and to increase motivation to do hard work. The term reward  can be misleading. In the experiments with rodents, rewards are anything that the animal wants, often but not always something pleasurable. In humans, a reward is a goal we are striving to achieve, regardless of whether it is pleasurable. For example, writing an overlong article about dopamine, or running a marathon. The prefrontal cortex decides what is our goal and then prods the nucleus accumbens to help maintain the effort to achieve it. While the direct pathway maintains the focus on the goal, the indirect pathway keeps us from getting sidetracked by other stimuli, and also provides the motivation for our effort. Tonic release of dopamine activates D2 receptors Now that we know about the D1 and D2 dopamine receptors and the direct and indirect pathways, we can explore how they regulate motivation — what I have called mental energy. In the baseline state of the brain, dopaminergic neurons that go to the nucleus accumbens fire action potentials in a tonic fashion, which means few, widely spaced action potentials. This produces a drip-drip release of dopamine (Wanat et al., 2009; Rice et al., 2011). In this situation, the dopamine levels outside the cell are too low to activate the low-affinity D1 receptors, but high enough to activate the high-affinity D2 receptors (Dreyer et al., 2010; Paladini and Roeper, 2014). This leads to the activation of the D2-MSNs in the indirect pathway, but not the D1-MSNs in the direct pathway. This maintains motivation and effort to complete a task (Salamone and Correa, 2012; Trifilieff et al., 2013; Trifilieff and Martinez, 2014; Volkow and Morales, 2015). Phasic release of dopamine activates D1 receptors When there is a strong motivation to get a reward or to achieve a goal, dopaminergic neurons to the nucleus accumbens start firing in bursts of action potentials. Burst firing means groups of high-frequency action potentials separated by short intervals. This induces phasic dopamine release (Wanat et al., 2009; Willuhn et al., 2010; Rice et al., 2011; Wise and Jordan, 2021), meaning short peaks of levels of dopamine high enough to activate the D1 receptors. Importantly, these dopamine peaks are very short, lasting a fraction of a second (Willuhn et al., 2010). However, the peaks happen over and over again, often for a long period time. This recruits the direct pathway, providing a strong push to achieve a goal. Addictive drugs overstimulate the D1 receptors In a previous article, Dopamine - Why Heroin Is Addictive But Porn Is Not , I explained how addictive drugs — cocaine, amphetamines, opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, nicotine and alcohol — induce long-lasting increases in dopamine. They do so by either inhibiting (cocaine) or reversing (amphetamines) the dopamine transporter (DAT), by blocking neurons that inhibit dopamine release (opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates), or by overstimulating the dopaminergic neurons (nicotine). While natural stimuli induce short-lasting peaks in dopamine, addictive drugs produce large elevations in dopamine concentrations that last a long time (Grace, 2000). Thus, dopamine peaks produced by natural stimuli typically last a fraction of a second, while drugs increase dopamine levels for minutes (Willuhn et al., 2010). These high levels of dopamine activate D1 receptors, so clues surrounding the taking of the drug get associated with the D1 receptor activation, producing a memory that guides the person towards taking more drug. This is what generates the drug-seeking behavior. Addictive drugs downregulate the D2 receptors However, the effect of these long-lasting increases in dopamine on the D2 receptors is crucial to explain drug addiction. Exposed to too much dopamine for too long, the D2 receptors internalize, disappearing from the cell surface. Repeated drug taking causes the downregulation of the D2 receptors (Porrino et al., 2004; Volkow and Morales, 2015), meaning that the D2 receptor-MSNs of the indirect pathway have less D2 receptors. Receptor downregulation happens when the receptors are internalized too often, so more and more of them get chewed up by proteases instead of being returned to the cell surface. In addition, the D2 receptor gene is expressed less, so fewer D2 receptors are made in the neuron. The downregulation of the D2 receptors dramatically changes the indirect pathway, leading to a loss of self-control and an increase in impulsivity. So, while the overactivated D1 receptors drive us to seek drugs in the present of drug-taking clues (cocaine lines, bottles of liquor, cigarettes, syringes, etc.), the D2 receptors are not present to reduce our impulsivity and maintain our determination not to take drugs. All addictive drugs downregulate the D2 receptors, while non-addictive substances do not. There is a strong correlation between the abuse potential of a drug and its ability to downregulate the D2 receptors. The downregulation of D2 receptors by drugs lasts months. Furthermore, continuous drug use causes the downregulation of the D2 receptors in an expanding volume of the striatum (Porrino et al., 2004). D2 receptor downregulation is the hallmark of addiction This way, the reward pathway becomes hijacked by the drug. The direct pathway of the D1-MSNs is taken over to induce drug craving. Meanwhile, the indirect pathway of the D2-MSNs is suppressed, causing a loss in self-control and an increase in impulsivity. Not only the D2 receptor downregulation is a good predictor of the abuse potential of a drug, but it explains why drug addicts lose the self-control to refrain from seeking the drug, and why they live in a state of dissatisfaction and lack of motivation. Therefore, the downregulation of the D2 receptors is the hallmark of addiction (Trifilieff et al., 2013; Trifilieff and Martinez, 2014; Volkow and Morales, 2015). We can use this criterion to determine if behaviors like watching porn, gambling, playing video games and exercising are addictive. If they are, they would downregulate the D2 receptors, like addictive drugs do. I will explore this question in the next articles of this series. References Dreyer JK, Herrik KF, Berg RW, Hounsgaard JD (2010) Influence of phasic and tonic dopamine release on receptor activation. J Neurosci 30:14273–14283. Grace AA (2000) The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation and its implications for understanding alcohol and psychostimulant craving. Addiction 95 Suppl 2:S119–128. Hikida T, Kimura K, Wada N, Funabiki K, Nakanishi S (2010) Distinct Roles of Synaptic Transmission in Direct and Indirect Striatal Pathways to Reward and Aversive Behavior. Neuron 66:896–907. Hurley MJ, Jenner P (2006) What has been learnt from study of dopamine receptors in Parkinson's disease? Pharmacol Ther 111:715–728. Jiang M, Spicher K, Boulay G, Wang Y, Birnbaumer L (2001) Most central nervous system D2 dopamine receptors are coupled to their effectors by Go. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:3577–3582. Kravitz AV, Tye LD, Kreitzer AC (2012) Distinct roles for direct and indirect pathway striatal neurons in reinforcement. Nature Neuroscience 15:816–818. Martel JC, Gatti McArthur S (2020) Dopamine Receptor Subtypes, Physiology and Pharmacology: New Ligands and Concepts in Schizophrenia. Frontiers in pharmacology Volume 11 - 2020. Mishra A, Singh S, Shukla S (2018) Physiological and Functional Basis of Dopamine Receptors and Their Role in Neurogenesis: Possible Implication for Parkinson's disease. J Exp Neurosci 12:1179069518779829. Paladini CA, Roeper J (2014) Generating bursts (and pauses) in the dopamine midbrain neurons. Neuroscience 282:109–121. Porrino LJ, Lyons D, Smith HR, Daunais JB, Nader MA (2004) Cocaine self-administration produces a progressive involvement of limbic, association, and sensorimotor striatal domains. J Neurosci 24:3554–3562. Rice ME, Patel JC, Cragg SJ (2011) Dopamine release in the basal ganglia. Neuroscience 198:112–137. Richfield EK, Penney JB, Young AB (1989) Anatomical and affinity state comparisons between dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience 30:767–777. Salamone JD, Correa M (2012) The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron 76:470–485. Smith RJ, Lobo MK, Spencer S, Kalivas PW (2013) Cocaine-induced adaptations in D1 and D2 accumbens projection neurons (a dichotomy not necessarily synonymous with direct and indirect pathways). Current Opinion in Neurobiology 23:546–552. Trifilieff P, Martinez D (2014) Imaging addiction: D2 receptors and dopamine signaling in the striatum as biomarkers for impulsivity. Neuropharmacology 76 Pt B:498–509. Trifilieff P, Feng B, Urizar E, Winiger V, Ward RD, Taylor KM, Martinez D, Moore H, Balsam PD, Simpson EH, Javitch JA (2013) Increasing dopamine D2 receptor expression in the adult nucleus accumbens enhances motivation. Molecular Psychiatry 18:1025–1033. Volkow ND, Morales M (2015) The Brain on Drugs: From Reward to Addiction. Cell 162:712–725. Wanat MJ, Willuhn I, Clark JJ, Phillips PE (2009) Phasic dopamine release in appetitive behaviors and drug addiction. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2:195–213. Willuhn I, Wanat MJ, Clark JJ, Phillips PE (2010) Dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens of animals self-administering drugs of abuse. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 3:29–71. Wise RA, Jordan CJ (2021) Dopamine, behavior, and addiction. J Biomed Sci 28:83. Copyright 2025 Hermes Solenzol

Dopamine depletion can mean alterations of the synaptic mechanisms that produce, release and eliminate dopamine Diagram showing how neurons contact each other with synapses. In the two previous articles of this series, I introduced the concept of mental energy and how it is influenced by dopamine. Then I described the reward pathway and the other dopaminergic pathways in the brain. In this article, I will address the question of whether dopamine can be depleted, because it has been assumed that this leads to a loss of mental energy. To answer that question, we first need to understand the dopamine synapse. That is going to require diving into some heavy-duty molecular neuroscience. So get your dopamine ready and let’s go! Dopamine neurotransmission - an overview Neurotransmitters like dopamine operate at the synapse , a tiny junction between the axon of one neuron, the presynaptic neuron, and the dendrites of another, the postsynaptic neuron. In some synapses, neurons can also make contact with neuronal bodies, axons, muscle cells and endocrine glands. However, the ones that concern us are the ones I describe above, called axodendritic synapses, which are the majority of the synapses in the brain. In synapses, neurotransmitters like dopamine are stored in synaptic vesicles  in the presynaptic terminal. When electric signals called action potentials reach the presynaptic terminal, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane, releasing dopamine. Dopamine then crosses the synapse and binds to dopamine receptors, which are proteins in the postsynaptic terminal. Dopamine receptors send a chemical signal inside the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron, which determines its firing of action potentials. Some dopamine receptors are located in the presynaptic terminal, where they regulate its function, forming a feedback loop. The effect of dopamine ends when it gets transported back into the presynaptic terminal by a protein called the dopamine transporter  (DAT). Other transporter, the vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2), puts dopamine back into the synaptic vesicles. Otherwise, dopamine is destroyed by an enzyme called monoamino oxidase  (MAO). How dopamine is made Dopamine is made  (synthesized) in the brain from two of the 20 amino acids that are strung together to make proteins: L-phenylalanine and L-tyrosine. Don’t worry about the L — it refers to a special configuration of the amino acid molecule. All amino acids in living beings are L (instead of D) stereoisomers. Dopamine is synthesized through these three reactions catalyzed by enzymes: L-Phenylalanine → L-Tyrosine →   L-DOPA → Dopamine The first reaction adds a hydroxyl (-OH) group to the benzene ring of phenylalanine, turning it into tyrosine. It is catalyzed by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase . The second adds yet another -OH group, turning tyrosine into DOPA (dihydroxy-phenylalanine). It is catalyzed by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase  (TH). This reaction is the limiting step in the production of dopamine, which means that it controls the speed at which it is synthesized. The last reaction takes away the carboxyl (-COOH) group of DOPA, converting it into dopamine. This is the ‘acid’ group of amino acids, so dopamine is no longer an amino acid, just an amine. Without this group, dopamine has no stereoisomers, that’s why there is no letter L before its name. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme DOPA decarboxylase  (DDC), also known as aromatic amino acid decarboxylase  (AADC). Dopamine can be converted into norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline) in cells that use them as neurotransmitters (noradrenergic neurons) or as a hormone (cells in the adrenal glands). What is important here is that tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the enzyme that limits the production of dopamine, forming a bottleneck in the series of reactions that make dopamine (Daubner et al., 2011; Bueno-Carrasco et al., 2022). This means that taking L-tyrosine supplements (as advocated by Andrew Huberman in his podcast) will not get you more dopamine in your brain. As we will see, the activity of TH is tightly controlled by signals in the synapse so, no matter how much L-tyrosine you take, these signals will not allow the making of more dopamine. The main signal that inhibits TH activity is one of the dopamine receptors, the D2 receptor. Too much dopamine causes problems Unlike L-tyrosine, L-DOPA bypasses the control of TH inhibition. So, if we want to increase  dopamine in our brain, we could just take L-DOPA. However, this would be a bad idea. L-DOPA is used to treat  Parkinson’s disease , which is caused by the degeneration of one of the other major dopaminergic pathways: the one that goes from the substantia nigra to the caudate and the putamen nuclei in the dorsal striatum. The death of the dopaminergic neurons in this pathway causes problems with movement, including tremors, rigidity and loss of balance. In its advance stages, Parkinson’s disease leads to sleep problems, mood swings, depression, anxiety and psychosis. L-DOPA alleviates the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, particularly in its early stages. Since it bypasses TH, the limiting step in the synthesis of dopamine, L-DOPA supplies the dopamine that is missing from the degenerating neurons. In fact, taking L-DOPA produces so much dopamine that synaptic vesicles accumulate abnormally large amounts of dopamine, even increasing in size (Sulzer et al., 2016). Then, when each synaptic vesicle fuses with the membrane, it releases abnormally large amounts of dopamine, much more than those induced by natural stimuli. Another thing that happens in Parkinson’s patients who take L-DOPA is that serotonergic neurons (those that release serotonin) also start synthesizing and releasing dopamine. However, unlike dopaminergic neurons, serotonergic neurons lack ways to eliminate the dopamine that they release, such as the dopamine transporter dopamine or the enzyme monoamine oxidase  (MAO) (Riederer et al., 2025). In the advanced stages of Parkinson’s disease, when most dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra have died, most of the dopamine produced by L-DOPA comes from serotonergic neurons. This causes a roller-coaster of highs and lows of dopamine, leading to involuntary movements called levodopa-induced dyskinesia . This is why it’s not a great idea for healthy people to take L-DOPA. We don’t want serotonergic neurons to start making dopamine and messing up our nervous system. But L-DOPA has some even weirder effects. Some Parkinson’s patients not only regained their sexual function, but started having too many spontaneous erections and nocturnal ejaculations (Bowers et al., 1971; Uitti et al., 1989). Some patients exhibited inappropriate sexual behavior like exhibitionism and excessive use of sex workers (Ceravolo et al., 2010). This hypersexual behavior was also observed in male rats that were given L-DOPA (Tagliamonte et al., 1974). Hypersexuality was more common if the patient was young, male and had early onset Parkinson’s. In other Parkinson’s patients, L-DOPA induces compulsive behaviors like excessive gambling, eating and shopping (Potenza et al., 2007; Ceravolo et al., 2010). L-DOPA is not the only medication that produces these compulsive behaviors, the selective agonists of dopamine D3 receptors pramipexole and ropinirole cause compulsive behaviors in 30% of the patients who take them (Ahlskog, 2011). The effect of these medications is more pronounced than that of L-DOPA, so dopamine is not what causes the compulsions, but the activation of some of its receptors. Also, it’s not that these patients lose control over their impulses, but that they develop an obsession with the problematic behavior (sex, gambling, shopping, etc.). There is something odd here. Although these patients developed compulsions to some behaviors, they never got addicted to L-DOPA itself. Addictive drugs are thought to cause addiction by increasing dopamine in the reward pathway. However, L-DOPA increased dopamine without causing addiction. Why? It seems that something else besides an elevation in dopamine is necessary to trigger addiction. I will try to answer this question when we explore the mechanisms by which drugs cause addiction. Diagram of a synapse showing synaptic vesicles. From Wikimedia Commons . Dopamine release The mechanisms of neurotransmitter release are quite complex. Each presynaptic terminal contains several types of synaptic vesicles, which contain different neurotransmitters. Light vesicles  contain small molecule neurotransmitters like glutamate, GABA or dopamine. Dense-core vesicles  contain neuropeptides like substance P or endorphins. Each of these types of vesicle requires a different pattern of incoming action potentials to release its contents: low frequency action potentials for the light vesicles and high frequency for the dense core vesicles (Lever et al., 2001; Adelson et al., 2009). Although dopamine is released from light synaptic vesicles, there are two different pools of them: one is ready to be released and another that is held in reserve. As the releasable pool of dopamine gets depleted, it is quickly replaced by the reserve pool, which in turn gets refilled with dopamine, either newly synthesized or taken back from the extracellular space by reuptake mechanisms. Synaptic vesicles are recycled after they release their neurotransmitter (Sulzer et al., 2016). Back inside the presynaptic terminal, they are refilled with dopamine by a protein called vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2). Dopamine reuptake and degradation There are membrane proteins, called transporters  or uptake mechanisms , whose function is to shuttle molecules across membranes. In particular, the dopamine transporter (DAT) terminates dopamine neurotransmission by taking it out of the extracellular space. DAT is hugely important because it is responsible for the effect of some addictive drugs. Cocaine produces its effect by inhibiting DAT and thereby increasing the time that dopamine has to activate its receptors. Amphetamines go even further: they reverse the DAT, so instead of putting dopamine back into the cell, it puts even more dopamine out of the cell. Once inside the cell, dopamine is put back inside the synaptic vesicles by VMAT2. Dopamine is also degraded by a series of enzymes, the most important of which is monoamine oxidase (MAO), which also degrades epinephrine, norepinephrine and serotonin. Some psychoactive medicaments act by inhibiting MAO, thereby increasing the levels of all these neurotransmitters. What does dopamine depletion actually mean? In view of all this, the dopamine depletion that is supposed to decrease mental energy can mean several different things. A decrease in the amount of dopamine stored in the synaptic vesicles . This would be the actual dopamine depletion. It could be caused not only by too much dopamine release but also by a decrease in the synthesis of dopamine or the transport of dopamine back into synaptic vesicles. Dopamine release  could be decreased by things other than its depletion in synaptic vesicles, like less firing of action potential in dopaminergic neurons or alterations in the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the membrane. Extracellular dopamine  could decrease even if the amount of released dopamine stays the same. Thus, the time that dopamine is present outside the neuron to activate dopamine receptors depends on the functioning of the DAT and the enzyme monoamino oxidase. For example, cocaine and amphetamines increase the effect of dopamine by inhibiting or reversing its reuptake by the DAT. Dopamine receptors  could be altered, decreasing their effect even if the amount of extracellular dopamine is the same.  In the next articles, I will examine how these mechanisms are affected by drugs, sex and other pleasurable stimuli to answer the question of whether pleasure decreases mental energy. As we have seen, the synthesis of dopamine is tightly regulated by the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase, which is controlled by one of the dopamine receptors, the D2 receptor, located in the presynaptic terminal. Thus, any significant decrease in the release of dopamine would mean less activation of these D2 receptors, releasing the inhibition of tyrosine hydroxylase, leading to the synthesis of more dopamine. The proteins that transport dopamine back into the synaptic vesicles, DAT and VMAT2, quickly take dopamine out from the extracellular space and load it back into the synaptic vesicles. This is shown by the dramatic effect of cocaine and amphetamines, drugs that act by inhibiting DAT. In fact, the amount of dopamine stored in synaptic vesicles can be increased by taking L-DOPA. This increases compulsive behaviors but, strangely enough, no addition to L-DOPA itself. In the next articles, I will try to explain why. Therefore, we should discard possibility number 1: that there is any significant depletion of the dopamine stored in synaptic vesicles. In general, high neuronal activity does not lead to the depletion of their neurotransmitters. A decrease in dopamine release (option number 2) could be caused by less firing of action potentials in the dopaminergic neurons. However, this is a normal part of the functioning of these neurons and it is regulated by what is happening in the rest of the brain. Changes in the fusion of the synaptic vesicles with the membrane can be caused by certain chemicals, but not by physiological mechanisms. Option number 3 is changes in extracellular dopamine. As I said above, this depends on the activity of DAT, which is very effective unless it is inhibited by cocaine and other psychostimulants. This leaves the dopamine receptors as the main determinants of the action of dopamine and its possible depletion. We will study them in detail in the next article. References Adelson DW, Lao L, Zhang G, Kim W, Marvizón JC (2009) Substance P release and neurokinin 1 receptor activation in the rat spinal cord increases with the firing frequency of C-fibers. Neuroscience 161:538–553. Ahlskog JE (2011) Pathological behaviors provoked by dopamine agonist therapy of Parkinson's disease. Physiology & behavior 104:168–172. Bowers MB, Jr., Van Woert M, Davis L (1971) Sexual behavior during L-dopa treatment for Parkinsonism. The American journal of psychiatry 127:1691–1693. Bueno-Carrasco MT, Cuéllar J, Flydal MI, Santiago C, Kråkenes T-A, Kleppe R, López-Blanco JR, Marcilla M, Teigen K, Alvira S, Chacón P, Martinez A, Valpuesta JM (2022) Structural mechanism for tyrosine hydroxylase inhibition by dopamine and reactivation by Ser40 phosphorylation. Nature Communications 13:74. Ceravolo R, Frosini D, Rossi C, Bonuccelli U (2010) Spectrum of addictions in Parkinson's disease: from dopamine dysregulation syndrome to impulse control disorders. J Neurol 257:S276–283. Daubner SC, Le T, Wang S (2011) Tyrosine hydroxylase and regulation of dopamine synthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 508:1–12. Lever IJ, Bradbury EJ, Cunningham JR, Adelson DW, Jones MG, McMahon SB, Marvizon JC, Malcangio M (2001) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is released in the dorsal horn by distinctive patterns of afferent fiber stimulation. Journal of Neuroscience 21:4469–4477. Potenza MN, Voon V, Weintraub D (2007) Drug Insight: impulse control disorders and dopamine therapies in Parkinson's disease. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 3:664–672. Riederer P, Strobel S, Nagatsu T, Watanabe H, Chen X, Löschmann P-A, Sian-Hulsmann J, Jost WH, Müller T, Dijkstra JM, Monoranu C-M (2025) Levodopa treatment: impacts and mechanisms throughout Parkinson’s disease progression. Journal of Neural Transmission 132:743–779. Sulzer D, Cragg SJ, Rice ME (2016) Striatal dopamine neurotransmission: regulation of release and uptake. Basal Ganglia 6:123–148. Tagliamonte A, Fratta W, Gessa GL (1974) Aphrodisiac effect of L-DOPA and apomorphine in male sexually sluggish rats. Experientia 30:381–382. Uitti RJ, Tanner CM, Rajput AH, Goetz CG, Klawans HL, Thiessen B (1989) Hypersexuality with antiparkinsonian therapy. Clin Neuropharmacol 12:375–383. Copyright 2025 Hermes Solenzol.

The Reward Pathway and Other Dopamine Neuronal Tracts Left : Position of the electrode (black bar) and stimulation site (red dot) in a rat brain in the experiment of Olds & Milner (1954). Right : Position of the electrode and stimulation sites in a the brain of patient B-10 (Heath, 1972). From (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015). In the first article of this series, I discussed the idea of mental energy and how it appears in many spiritual traditions. In this one, I will start exploring the possible link between dopamine and mental energy by describing the function of the main dopamine neuronal pathways in the brain. One way to understand the functioning of the brain is in terms of neuronal pathways. These are circuits of neurons that send their axons from one area of the brain to another, making contacts (synapses) with neurons in that region. Some neuronal pathways use a single neurotransmitter, in this case, we are going to explore the dopaminergic ones.  Dopaminergic  means that dopamine is the neurotransmitter used by a neuronal pathway. ‘Pleasure’ electrodes in the brain It all started in 1953. James Olds and Peter Milner were postdoctoral fellows lab of the famous neuropsychologist Donald Hebb  at McGill University, in Montreal. Their experiment consisted of implanting electrodes in the reticular formation of rats to study their sleep-wake cycle. They placed the rat in a large rectangular box and waited for the rat to be in a particular corner to pass current through the electrode. One of the rats kept coming back to that corner, as if it wanted to receive the stimulation (Olds and Milner, 1954; Olds, 1958). To check if this was true, they used a set-up called a Skinner box , in which rats can press a lever to activate the electrode themselves. What happened is that rats would press the lever several thousand times per hour. Given the choice between food, on the one hand, or pressing the lever, on the other hand, the rats chose to press the lever, even when they were hungry. Male rats preferred the lever over a sexually receptive female rat. Female rats abandoned their pups to go to press the lever. In view of this, Olds named the region of the brain stimulated by the electrode pleasure centers in the brain . However, this idea was challenged later (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015). Even Olds himself, in later books (Olds, 1977), recognized that there was no evidence that the rats felt pleasure when they stimulated the electrode. The area stimulated by the electrodes implanted by Olds and Milner was the lateral hypothalamus (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015). The hypothalamus is a region in the middle bottom of the brain that serves as a bridge between the brain and the body, connecting the brain with the endocrine system. The psychiatrist Robert Heath took these experiments from the rat to human patients with schizophrenia, depression and other disorders (Heath, 1972). He found that the patients would avidly activate electrodes placed in a widespread ‘septal’ area that included the “septum, anterior hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, ventromedial neostriatum, pyriform cortex and ventromedial neocortex” (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2015). The most famous of Heath’s patients was B-19, a young man who Dr. Heath wanted to cure of his homosexuality by stimulating his brain in the supposedly ‘pleasure’ area located in the septum/nucleus accumbens (Heath, 1972). Although B-19 avidly self-simulated with this electrode, he never said that he experienced pleasure while doing so. And far from ‘curing’ his homosexuality, the electrode made him want more sex. The reward pathway Today, we know that the neuronal pathway stimulated by the electrodes is located in the ventral striatum, linking the ventral tegmental area (VTA) with the nucleus accumbens. It uses dopamine as a neurotransmitter. As I explained in a previous article , drugs that produce addiction does so by releasing dopamine in the nucleus accumbens to much higher levels than natural stimuli life sex, food or exercise. This dopaminergic tract is called the mesolimbic pathway  because it is located in the midbrain (hence meso ) and is part of the limbic system, the areas of the brain that control emotions. However, it is better known as the reward pathway because it mediates what scientists call reward behavior: anything that an animal seeks. A reward is not necessarily pleasurable. It’s just something that the animal needs — like food, water, a mate, avoiding pain, or escaping the threat of a predator. A reward is anything that motivates the animal to act. Today, even the name reward pathway  is being questioned (Salamone and Correa, 2012) because there is much more to it than just craving some things and avoiding others. Its main role is to motivate us to do something, to keep us focused on a task, and to generate determination to keep sustained effort (Wanat et al., 2009; Salamone and Correa, 2012; Berke, 2018; Wise and Jordan, 2021). It’s more a motivation  pathway. Motivation is similar to what I called mental energy in the previous article because when we are motivated we are ready to do some effort to achieve our goals and, when we are not, we feel passive and lazy. The mesocortical pathway However, the mesolimbic or reward pathway is not the only one that drives our motivation. There is another dopaminergic pathway that links the VTA with the brain cortex. It’s called the mesocortical pathway because it links the midbrain to the cortex. Its function is to maintain sustained effort and attention. The mesocortical pathway stimulates the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex  (PFC), which is where working memory resides, the desktop where we keep the things we are paying attention to in a given moment. The PFC also mediates cognitive flexibility; our ability to switch between mental contents; abstract reasoning; planning, and inhibiting spurious impulses. The mesocortical pathway also activates the anterior cingulate cortex  (ACC), which plays a crucial role in motivation, planning actions, attention, and detecting errors and conflicts. Other dopaminergic pathways All the current talk about dopamine centers in the reward pathway because it is the most relevant to the issues of addiction, motivation and mental energy. However, the reward and the mesocortical pathways are just two of the six major dopaminergic neuronal pathways  in the brain. This shows that there isn’t just one single reservoir of dopamine in the brain. Instead, dopamine acts in different parts of the brain to fulfill a variety of functions. Here is a brief description of the four other dopaminergic pathways. The nigrostriatal pathway  regulates movement and some forms of learning. It runs from the substantia nigra to the caudate nucleus and the putamen. The dopamine-containing neurons in the substantia nigra are gradually destroyed in Parkinson’s disease, causing the tremors and motor problems characteristic of this disease. The hypothalamospinal tract  goes from the hypothalamus to the spinal cord, where it controls sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. Some of its neurons contain oxytocin, which regulates erection in males. The two remaining dopaminergic pathways, the tuberoinfundibular and incertohypothalamic pathways, are key for the effects of dopamine on sexual function. Both of them are inside the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that controls body function in general and sexual responses in particular. In them, dopamine increases erection and ejaculation in males and sexual receptivity and orgasm in females. However, they are not responsible for sexual desire or pleasure. I will explore them in another article. The tuberoinfundibular pathway  goes from the arcuate nucleus  (also called the infundibular nucleus) to the median eminence , which releases hormones into the pituitary gland, which in turn releases hormones into the blood to regulate the endocrine system. The incertohypothalamic pathway  goes from the zona incerta, an area below the thalamus also called A14, to the paraventricular nucleus. Besides sexual behavior, it regulates fear responses and the autonomic nervous system. A seventh dopaminergic pathway goes from the A11 nucleus, near the thalamus, to the spinal cord, where it controls pain. The logic behind that idea that sex depletes mental energy The idea that sex depletes mental energy follows this logic: Dopamine is essential to activate the reward and mesocortical pathways, which generate motivation and sustain attention and effort — what I have called mental energy.   Sex is a powerful natural reward, so it releases dopamine in the reward pathway. Too much sex (porn, masturbation) depletes dopamine in the reward pathway, so there is not enough to sustain mental energy. The key question is in step 3. Is it true that sex depletes dopamine in the reward pathway? Is this depletion enough to have a noticeable effect on mental energy? There is a lot of confusion about what dopamine depletion really means. Sadly, this is perpetuated by the careless use of this expression in many scientific papers. We get the image that there is a reservoir of dopamine in the brain that leaks dopamine every time we experience pleasure. If the brain doesn’t manage to replenish the reservoir fast enough, we are left without dopamine and, therefore, without energy. However, there is no reservoir of dopamine. This is not how neurotransmitters work. In the next article, I will describe the dopamine synapse to explore whether dopamine depletion really occurs in the reward pathway. Can too much sex or pleasure decrease the dopamine that sustain our mental energy? References Berke JD (2018) What does dopamine mean? Nat Neurosci 21:787–793. Berridge Kent C, Kringelbach Morten L (2015) Pleasure Systems in the Brain. Neuron 86:646–664. Heath RG (1972) Pleasure and brain activity in man. Deep and surface electroencephalograms during orgasm. J NervMentDis 154:3–18. Olds J (1958) Self-stimulation of the brain; its use to study local effects of hunger, sex, and drugs. Science 127:315–324. Olds J (1977) Drives and reinforcements: Behavioral studies of hypothalamic functions. New York: Raven Press. Olds J, Milner P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. J Comp Physiol Psychol 47:419–427. Salamone JD, Correa M (2012) The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron 76:470–485. Wanat MJ, Willuhn I, Clark JJ, Phillips PE (2009) Phasic dopamine release in appetitive behaviors and drug addiction. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2:195–213. Wise RA, Jordan CJ (2021) Dopamine, behavior, and addiction. J Biomed Sci 28:83.

Framing the question of the effect of pleasure on dopamine and motivation Sculptures in Lakshmana Temple showing gods and a couple practicing maithuna sex. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Author: Benjamín Preciado   Centro de Estudios de Asia y África de El Colegio de México . The claim that sex depletes mental energy These days, there is a lot of negative talk about porn, masturbation, sex and pleasure. Two claims are made regarding these things: That they are addictive. That they sap the energy that we need to function in our lives. I rebutted the first claim in a previous article, Dopamine: Why Heroin Is Addictive But Porn Is Not  ( in Medium , in Substack , in Sex, Science & Spirit ). It is part of a wider debate (Olsen, 2011; Potenza, 2014; Hynes et al., 2021; Fournier et al., 2023; Zeng et al., 2023) on whether some behaviors — masturbation, sex, eating tasty food, gambling, video gaming, using social media, exercise and work — are as addictive as drugs like opioids, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine and alcohol. In my article, I argued that, although some behaviors can become compulsive, this is physiologically different from the effects of addictive drugs. The second claim is more subtle. It is promoted by some modern fads like NoFap , which demonizes masturbation, and ‘ dopamine fasting ’, which proposes abstaining from pleasure to increase mental energy. This is rationalized by saying that sex and pleasure release too much dopamine in our brain, depleting it. Since dopamine is what motivate us to do hard stuff, like studying, working or doing sports, pleasure makes us weak. Hence, if we abstain from pleasure, mostly by not masturbating, we become more energetic and powerful — we have more mental energy . An in-depth look at the neuroscience of dopamine revels that this claim, like the first one, is wrong. However, explaining this in detail is not easy. What I first intended to be a single article has become too long, so I decided to turn it into a series of articles, which may eventually grow into a book. You can get a preview of this content in my interview on The Nicolas Procel Podcast . I am a neuroscientist and a UCLA professor (now retired). For 40 years, I did basic research on neurotransmitters, opioids and pain neurophysiology. I have published 65 scientific papers . My lab was supported for 20 years by several research grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Veterans Administration. Is there such a thing as mental energy? The term mental energy sounds a bit woo-woo. It evokes images of the Jedi of the Star Wars movies throwing things around with the mystical power of their minds. It is nothing new, however. As we will see, this idea goes way back in a lot of mystical traditions. Nevertheless, we all have the intuition that there is something we could call mental energy. Some days we feel invigorated, able to focus on an arduous mental task or to do strenuous exercise. We are bursting with energy. Other days, in contrast, we feel depleted. We procrastinate, get easily distracted, are unable to focus, and even a small amount of exercise exhausts us. The same happens when we compare one person with another. Some people are strong, optimistic, resilient, healthy and productive, while others are weak, depressed, fragile, sick and lazy. Some of that has to do with health. A body in poor health is unable to do strenuous activity. Science has shown that depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder and a variety of other mental problems are diseases of the brain, no different from the ones of the body. Most mental problems of them can be treated with medication and therapy. Just as we do not despise people for being sick, nobody should be blamed or shamed for having mental disorders. Still, we all feel responsible for improving our mental health, just like we take care of our physical health with a healthy lifestyle. Shouldn’t we deprive ourselves of pleasure, then, if that improves our mental health? We could define mental energy as our ability to sustain effort, maintain focus, stay on task, generate motivation, be resilient to drawbacks and generate positive emotions like joy, confidence, curiosity, interest, awe, love and compassion. Lack of mental energy is when we feel weak, distracted, unable to focus, unmotivated, easily frustrated and entangled in negative emotions like anger, fear, sadness, shame, indignation and envy. Therefore, I think that is legitimate to use the term mental energy  as a concept encompassing these things. Mental energy is not physical energy However, it is important to clarify that mental energy is different from the concept of energy in physics. The bridge between these two ideas could be the metabolic energy that keeps us alive. Metabolic energy is physical energy contained in the chemical bonds of glucose, the molecule that shuttles energy through the body, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy coin inside the cells. However, unless we are starving, there seems to be little correlation between metabolic energy and mental energy. People can be well-fed and physically healthy and still have low mental energy. Conversely, some people who are sick, starved, or have been tortured display tremendous amounts of mental energy. Mental energy, then, is entirely different from physical energy. No matter how much mental energy you have, you won’t be able to throw things around like Star Wars Jedis using the Force. Is it possible to increase our mental energy? We know that there are things we can do to improve our mental health: eating healthy food, getting enough exercise and sleep, abstaining from smoking, drinking alcohol and eating sugar. These things do increase our mental energy. Hence, for many people, it makes sense that abstaining from sex, or from socially condemned forms of sex like masturbation and porn, can also lead to a healthier life. However, is this true? Science has shown that sex is healthy, for both men and women (Komisaruk et al., 2006). And that includes masturbation. Mental energy in mystical traditions The ideas of managing our mental energy, and that sex depletes it, are rooted in the mystical traditions of many religions. Christianity and Islam have strict commandments regarding sex. However, this is done to obey God, not to gain mental energy or achieve religious experiences. Still, these may come as side-effects of celibacy. In Hinduism, practiced in the West as yoga, prana is a vital energy that circulates through channels called the nadis. Yoga breathing, or pranayama, regulates and balances prana, giving us more energy and mental stability. Yoga also teaches that sex wastes prana, making us weak. This is particularly true of ejaculation in men, while the effect of female orgasms on prana is much less clear. Tantra is a mystical school common to Hinduism and Buddhism. Sexual Tantra is a series of practices in which sex is done without ejaculation ( maithuna ). This was imported in the West as coitus reservatus , sex without ejaculation in men or orgasm in women. Its modern adaptation is semen retention , an edging technique in which a man comes close to orgasm but does not ejaculate. In Taoism and Traditional Chinese Medicine, vital energy is called qi . Just like prana, qi courses through channels called the meridians. Acupuncture is supposed to restore health by inserting needles at acupuncture points located along the meridians. Again, sex is supposed to waste qi. This idea was imported from Taoism into Zen Buddhism. My personal experience with celibacy and mysticism I grew up in Franco’s Spain being indoctrinated by the Catholic organization Opus Dei . Therefore, during my early teens I strictly abstained from masturbating. When I was 15, I had a religious crisis that led me to abandon Catholicism . You would expect that this led me to start experimenting with masturbation but, instead, I was immediately attracted to yoga philosophy and its teaching of Brahmacharya : sexual abstinence to preserve my prana. Did this increase my mental energy? It’s true that I was a model student, getting top grades throughout high school and college. But I also had emotional problems. My sexual abstinence led to have a series of painful crushes that I didn’t know how to manage. My sexual liberation came halfway through college, when I finally left aside yoga philosophy and I started dating and having sex. Masturbation became a daily practice. I felt happier, more emotionally balanced, and my grades didn’t suffer one bit. I have continued practicing yoga to this day, though, and I can attest that some forms of pranayama do increase my mental energy. When I was 27 I started practicing Zen Buddhism. Unlike when I was immersed in yoga in my late teens, that didn’t keep me from masturbating and having sex. However, when I participated in long Zen retreats, called sesshins, I abstained from masturbation. We were asked to do so to increase the vital energy that we supposedly generated during meditation. It’s hard for me to separate the effects of this temporary celibacy from the effects of the long hours of meditation. As you can see, I have plenty of experience with both celibacy and a free sexual lifestyle. I also have experience with different spiritual practices supposed to generate mental energy. Although all this was personally enriching, it’s hard to derive any objective knowledge from my subjective experiences. What I can do is to contrast my personal experience with scientific knowledge about the brain, and see if I can make any sense out of this. There is no scientific basis for mystical energy Science has found no evidence of the existence of prana, chi, the nadis or the meridians. If you examine the areas of the body where the nadis or the meridians are supposed to be located, there is nothing there that resembles the descriptions found in religious textbooks. No scientific instrument has ever measured a form of energy in the body that could be prana or qi. The only way science can interpret these concepts is as some form of representation of subjective experiences — what we feel when we experience our bodies from the inside. Or, to put it in scientific terms, prana and qi could be interoceptive feelings. These feelings could be valuable as a guide to train us to feel if our body is in an unbalanced or a healthy state. This is how I interpret what I feel in my spiritual practice, which involves a fair amount of energy work . However, this doesn’t answer the question of whether sex depletes our mental energy. As I discussed above, we all have the experience of ups and downs in our mental energy. So, although the explanations of the mystical traditions do not make sense, there could be another explanation based on brain physiology. Dopamine seems to be a good candidate for such an explanation, since it is released by sex and other pleasurable stimuli and, at the same time, it is required for motivation and sustained effort. Hence, it makes sense that when pleasure depletes dopamine, we lose motivation and the mental energy required for effort. But the brain doesn’t work that way. It’s much more complicate than that. However, this would require a long explanation backed by extensive scientific evidence, which I will provide in the next articles in this series. References Fournier L, Schimmenti A, Musetti A, Boursier V, Flayelle M, Cataldo I, Starcevic V, Billieux J (2023) Deconstructing the components model of addiction: an illustration through "addictive" use of social media. Addict Behav 143:107694. Hynes TJ, Hrelja KM, Hathaway BA, Hounjet CD, Chernoff CS, Ebsary SA, Betts GD, Russell B, Ma L, Kaur S, Winstanley CA (2021) Dopamine neurons gate the intersection of cocaine use, decision making, and impulsivity. Addict Biol 26:e13022. Komisaruk BR, Beyer C, Whipple B (2006) The science of orgasm. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Olsen CM (2011) Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions. Neuropharmacology 61:1109–1122. Potenza MN (2014) Non-substance addictive behaviors in the context of DSM-5. Addict Behav 39:1–2. Zeng X, Han X, Gao F, Sun Y, Yuan Z (2023) Abnormal structural alterations and disrupted functional connectivity in behavioral addiction: A meta-analysis of VBM and fMRI studies. J Behav Addict.

We can learn to love pain Location of the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens in the human brain. From Wikimedia Commons. If you place an electrified rod in the rat's cage, the rat soon learns to avoid it. However, if you pair contact with the rod with optogenetic stimulation  of the central amygdala (CeA) of the rat, it learns to want the pain delivered by the electric rod. It seeks the rod over and over again. The CeA is the part of the brain that mediates stress and fear. What happens in the experiment is that stimulating the CeA induces dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, the key component of the reward pathway. This causes the rat to desire whatever is paired with the release of dopamine. Applying this to BDSM, the fear and the pain at the beginning of a sadomasochistic scene activates the CeA, which is part of the flight/fight response. Then, the bottom partner learns to want the pain, just like the rat does. The question is… does the masochist like the pain, or does he just wants it? These are different things. There is also an important twist… The rat chooses when to touch the electrified rod to experience the pain. If the rat loses control over the pain, then it learns to avoid the rod instead of seeking it. Having control over the pain changes things completely. It's the same for masochists. They have some basic control over a scene because they can stop it by using a safeword. Losing control over a scene (because it becomes non-consensual) turns a pleasant experience into a horrible one. Reference Positive Affect: Nature and brain bases of liking and wanting. Nguyen, D., Naffziger, E.E. & Berridge, K.C. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021, Pages 72-78 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7978410/